Shanidar Cave (Kurdish: ئەشکەوتی شانەدەر, romanized: Eşkewtî Şaneder, Arabic: كَهَف شانِدَر) is an archaeological site located on Bradost Mountain, within the Zagros Mountains in the Erbil Governorate of the Kurdistan Region in northern Iraq. Neanderthal remains were found here in 1953, including Shanidar 1, who may have survived several injuries, possibly because others in his group helped him, and Shanidar 4, noted as a possible "flower burial," where pollen has been suggested to be the remnants of flowers intentionally placed there. Before this discovery, Cro-Magnons, the earliest known H. sapiens in Europe, were the only individuals known to have purposeful, ritualistic burials. However, some scientists think the pollen over the burial might have come from natural causes, such as bee activity.

Archaeology

The Shanidar Cave is located near Barzan, about 0.5 miles (800 meters) from the Great Zab River. It is at an elevation of 2,100 feet (640 meters) above sea level. The cave’s entrance is triangular, with a portal that is 82 feet (25 meters) wide and 26 feet (7.9 meters) high. The cave itself is 130 feet (40 meters) long, 175 feet (53 meters) wide, and 45 feet (14 meters) high.

Anthropologist Ralph Solecki, who was part of the University of Michigan Expedition to the Near East, first explored the site in 1951. He returned in 1953 with the help of the Directorate General of Antiquities of Iraq and the Smithsonian Institution for further exploration. In 1953, the first human remains were found. These were believed to be the bones of a Neanderthal infant from the Mousterian era of the Middle Paleolithic period.

In the 1956–57 season, Solecki and his team explored nearby village sites and continued work at the cave. Three Neanderthal skeletons were discovered at Shanidar Cave. One was nearly complete (Shanidar I – field catalog no. 504 III), one was broken (Shanidar III – field catalog no. 384 III), and one had only the skull (Shanidar II – field catalog no. 618 III). Archaeologists also found the remains of a Neolithic infant and a female adolescent buried with items. These two are thought to be a mother and child who may have died during childbirth or from an infection. Explosives were used during these excavations.

During the 1960 season, a mostly complete adult Neanderthal skeleton (Shanidar IV) was found. This skeleton was more fragile than earlier ones. During its removal, the bones of another Neanderthal, or possibly two, were noted and labeled as Shanidar VI. One was thought to be male, and the other female based on size. The remains of one adult Neanderthal male were labeled Shanidar V, but they were badly damaged and scattered.

After the remains were studied, more Neanderthal bones were identified. Shanidar 9 was an infant with only vertebrae. These remains were found during the removal of Shanidar 4 when it was being moved to the Baghdad Museum. Shanidar 8 was an adult with a partial skeleton. Shanidar 6 and 7 had only skull, teeth, and partial skeletons. Shanidar 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 were found as separate burials, while others were found in a single compressed block.

In total, the excavations uncovered the remains of seven adult and two infant Neanderthals, dating back about 65,000–35,000 years. These remains were found in a Mousterian layer (layer D), covered by a Baradostian layer (layer C), a Mesolithic Zarzian layer (layer B), and a Holocene Neolithic layer (layer A). These layers included stone tools and animal remains. The cave also has two later proto-Neolithic cemeteries. One dates to about 10,600 BCE and has 35 individuals, which Solecki linked to the Natufian culture. In 2018, remains labeled Shanidar-11 and Shanidar-12 were discovered.

In 2014–2015, investigations were conducted by the Kurdistan Directorate of Antiquities. Researchers are reexamining the remains to learn more about the burial practices of Neanderthals in the area. Signs suggest that the remains were moved after death, as the position of the skull and jaw of Shanidar 1 was not natural. Studies of other sites will help understand these practices. At the University of Chicago, researchers are analyzing animal remains from Layer D to study butchery activity. Many bones had cuts made by flint tools, which are linked to butchery.

Neanderthal remains

The ten Neanderthals found at the site were located in a Mousterian layer that also included hundreds of stone tools, such as points, side-scrapers, and flakes, as well as bones from animals like wild goats and spur-thighed tortoises.

The first nine Neanderthals (Shanidar 1–9) were discovered between 1957 and 1961 by Ralph Solecki and a team from Columbia University. The skeleton of Shanidar 3 is now at the Smithsonian Institution. The others (Shanidar 1, 2, and 4–8) remained in Iraq but may have been lost during the 2003 invasion. Casts of these skeletons are still at the Smithsonian. In 2006, Melinda Zeder found leg and foot bones from a tenth Neanderthal while sorting bones at the Smithsonian. This individual is now known as Shanidar 10.

Shanidar 1 was an elderly male Neanderthal, called "Nandy" by the people who discovered him. He was between 30 and 45 years old. His brain size was about 1,600 cm³, and he was around 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm) tall. He had serious physical changes. He was one of four nearly complete skeletons from the cave that showed injuries that would have made daily life painful.

During his life, he suffered a severe blow to the left side of his face, causing a broken bone in his eye socket, which likely made him blind in one eye. His teeth showed unusual wear, and changes to his incisors and a flattened bone suggest he had a disease that worsened over time. His left and right ear canals were partially or completely blocked by bony growths, which would have caused serious hearing loss. His right arm was withered and had broken in several places. A broken bone in his neck is thought to have damaged the muscles in his right arm. His arm healed, but the injury may have caused his lower arm and hand to be lost. This could have been due to a birth condition, childhood illness, or an amputation later in life. A sharp point from a broken bone in his upper arm suggests the amputation theory. If his arm was removed, this would be one of the earliest signs of surgery on a living person. The injury may have caused partial paralysis on his right side, leading to deformities in his legs and feet. Studies show he had broken both legs, which would have made walking painful and difficult. These injuries suggest he likely could not care for himself in a Neanderthal society.

More recent research by Erik Trinkaus and Sébastien Villotte found bony growths in his ear canals that caused hearing loss. These growths support a diagnosis of a condition called diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), also known as Forestier’s disease. This would make Shanidar 1 the oldest known hominin with this condition. Researchers found these bone growths in multiple parts of his skeleton.

His injuries healed over time, meaning he lived with them for a long period before dying. If Neanderthals performed surgery on him, their methods were effective in helping him survive. His long life with serious disabilities suggests that others in his group may have helped him, possibly because he had high social status or valuable knowledge.

These findings also suggest Neanderthals may have shown kindness or cared for others. Stone tools found near the remains show Neanderthals could create tools to make life easier. Their intelligence may have included traits like compassion, similar to modern humans.

Shanidar 2 was a male Neanderthal about 30 years old who had slight arthritis. He was found lying on his right side and was about 5 feet 2 inches (157 cm) tall. He died when rocks fell from the cave ceiling, crushing his skull and bones. His skull was compressed by about 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 inches). Much of his bones were missing, and his left leg had tooth marks, suggesting scavengers may have eaten parts of his body. A small pile of stones and shaped stone points made from chert were found on his grave, along with evidence of a large fire nearby. This suggests a ritual burial.

Shanidar 2 had a skull shape that was slightly different from typical Neanderthal skulls, possibly showing a mix of traits found in modern humans. This could mean the Neanderthals at Shanidar had more similarities to modern humans or that the group was very diverse.

Shanidar 3 was a male Neanderthal aged 40 to 50 years old. He was found in the same grave as Shanidar 1 and 2. A wound to his left 9th rib suggests he died from complications after being stabbed by a sharp object. Bone growth around the wound shows he lived for weeks after the injury, with the object still inside him. The angle of the wound suggests the injury was not self-inflicted but possibly accidental or intentional. Recent research suggests the injury may have come from a long-range projectile, which would be the earliest known example of violence between humans. This may have been caused by another Neanderthal or an early modern human. Shanidar 3 also had a foot condition from a broken bone or sprain, causing pain and limited movement. His skeleton is displayed at the Hall of Human Origins at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.

Shanidar 4 was an adult male Neanderthal aged 30–45 years old. He was discovered in 1960 by Solecki, positioned on his left side in a partial fetal position. For many years, his remains were thought to show evidence of a Neanderthal burial ritual. Soil samples taken near his body were later analyzed and found to contain pollen, which helped scientists study the ancient climate and plant life of the area.