Symbolic behavior refers to a person's ability to respond to or use symbols that have meaning (Faules & Alexander, 1978, p. 5). This perspective suggests that the reality of an organization is created through communication (Cheney & Christensen, 2000; Putnam, Phillips, & Chapman, 1996). People use symbolic messages to understand their surroundings and build a shared understanding (Faules & Alexander, 1978; Mills, 2002). When people face uncertainty, they organize themselves based on their shared understanding and respond according to that understanding (Weick, 1995).

History

Symbolic interactionism (SI) is a term first introduced by Herbert Blumer in 1937. This idea came from the teachings of George Herbert Mead, a sociologist and philosopher. Mead's lecture notes on social psychology were written down after his death and published in a book titled Mind, Self, and Society in 1934. Mead, who was born in 1863, is often credited with creating the idea of symbolic interactionism, which explains how individuals develop their thoughts through social experiences. Mead described language as a way people use meaningful symbols to communicate, and he introduced the ideas of "me" and "I" to explain how people understand themselves and others. These ideas are part of the symbolic behavior perspective, which is based on symbolic interactionism. Blumer (1962) explained that symbolic interactionism is about how people act based on the meanings they assign to things. These meanings come from their interactions with others and change as people interpret them. In organizations, symbolic interactionism helps explain how employees develop their sense of self by interacting with coworkers, bosses, and others in the workplace. Over time, employees learn how to behave by understanding the values, roles, attitudes, and rules that shape their work environment (Wood, 1999).

Symbolic behavior perspective viewpoints

When people join an organization, they often feel unsure about what to expect. This uncertainty makes them rely on symbols and messages to understand their new environment (Brown, 1986). To help reduce confusion, organizations use symbols to create common meanings that everyone can understand. When people interpret these symbols, they begin to act in ways that match the culture of the organization. Over time, these shared beliefs and practices form a shared understanding of how things work within the group (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 225). Organizations use symbols to build and keep their culture strong, allowing leaders to explain and support the group’s values as people focus on shared goals (Colvin, 2000, p. F-9). Shared values, which are expressed through symbols, can also help reduce confusion and disagreements among members (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 233). According to Mead’s theory, a social act has three parts: one person does something, another person responds, and then something happens because of the interaction. The result of this interaction shows what the action meant for the person who started it (Littlejohn & Foss, p. 160).

Symbolic behavior perspective propositions

The discussion above can be summarized into 7 main ideas presented by the symbolic behavior perspective. These ideas address the following topics: complexity, uncertainty, organizing, creating and keeping culture, how people understand reality together, group actions, leadership, and handling differences (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 222):

Proposition 1: Complexity in organizations makes people depend more on symbols and messages.

Proposition 2: Uncertainty leads to ongoing organizing efforts.

Proposition 3: Symbols help create and keep organizational culture.

Proposition 4: Symbols form the basis for how people understand reality together.

Proposition 5: Groups emphasize the importance of using symbols and messages.

Proposition 6: Leadership needs effective use of symbols and messages.

Proposition 7: Differences and contradictions are handled through cultural adjustments.

Tools of symbolic behavior

According to Harris & Nelson (2008, p. 237), tools are things that give people meanings or importance. Tools can be verbal or non-verbal communication.

Stories/myths: Stories are told again and again. They help people understand situations and guide how people act in the organization.

Titles: Titles show how an employee is connected to the organization.

Slogans: Slogans can help remind people of important goals or introduce new ones (Waterman, 1987).

Dress: Clothing is important because it shows the culture of the organization (Remland, 2003). Clothing can affect how people view someone's actions and intentions (Galin, 1990, p. 51). The rules about what to wear can change how the organization is seen by others.

Priorities: The goals within an organization and how they are handled daily have a big effect. People feel more connected to the organization when management’s goals match those of employees (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 238).

Limitations of symbolic behavior

Overusing symbolic actions can cause serious problems. These problems include unethical behavior, actions that have no real meaning, symbols being used everywhere, creating conflicts, and people interpreting symbols in ways that were not intended (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 239). Blumer explains that in large groups, people often repeat the same actions over and over, which helps them understand each other. He warns that new situations may require people to change how they act or think (Littlejohn & Foss, p. 160).

Unethical groups, leaders, or coworkers sometimes use tricks, such as pretending to be friendly to hide dishonest goals, giving incorrect safety advice, or lying about why people behave in certain ways. These actions help them gain unfair advantages (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 240).

When actions lack real meaning, people may become trapped in activities that focus more on appearance than on real value (Robbins 1980). Some diversity efforts are criticized for focusing on numbers from short-term actions rather than solving the actual problems with clear plans (Harris, 1997).

Symbols can stop people from making real changes or responding properly to challenges. Cultures help people feel connected and unified (Tompkins & Cheney, 1983). However, when values are too strong or a culture is too powerful, people may struggle to change or act consistently. Three risks include outdated practices, resistance to change, and inconsistent behavior (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). Strong cultures can control how people act and what they do, making individuals follow the culture’s messages (Conrad, 1985). Mead described a gesture with shared meaning as a "significant symbol," meaning that once people agree on its meaning, the gesture becomes important (Littlejohn & Foss, p. 161).

Symbols can cause disagreements within an organization. While cultures can bring people together, they can also create separation. Symbols used to support an organization may lead to social conflicts between individuals or groups, such as between managers and workers or between different departments (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 243).

People may react unpredictably to symbols because they interpret them based on their own experiences. This can lead to unintended results (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 244). Using symbols carefully is important to avoid taking the wrong action even if the goal is good. Too much pride in an organization can cause employees and managers to act in ways that harm the organization (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 244).

Performances involved in symbolic behavior

A dramatistic perspective sees people as individuals who act, make up ideas on the spot, and show how they understand and repeat roles or scripts (Conquergood, 1991, p. 187). The intangible activities that support a service can create a satisfying experience or a performance that justifies spending more money (Pine & Gilmore, 1999).

Learning to act in ways that match expected roles is important for personal growth and for the success of groups or organizations (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 244). The ability to use symbols, such as words or actions, helps people think and understand themselves.

Choosing how to appear, such as through clothing, language, facial expressions, or good customer service, sends messages that support a role (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 245). Some people are better at saying and doing the right things at the right time, which helps them avoid using the wrong words or actions by mistake. How well individuals or groups perform their roles often determines whether their actions are accepted (Pacanowsky & O’Donnell-Trujillo, 1983).

Using both spoken and unspoken symbols to meet the needs of a role helps someone perform it successfully (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 246). Ideas like how people present themselves and manage others’ impressions are common ways to achieve this (Lord & Maher, 1991). While some might worry about using impression management in unethical ways, it can still be helpful for gaining leadership roles or achieving goals (Hackman & Johnson, 2000, p. 24).

Some level of keeping the audience at a distance is needed to create a sense of mystery or separation between the person performing and the audience (Harris & Nelson, 2008, p. 247).

Types of rituals

Rituals are actions performed during events and include all activities that are done many times (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 248). These rituals help create a sense of reality within an organization.

Rituals related to joining an organization explain what new members must learn to become official parts of the group (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 248). Socialization is the process of teaching new employees about a company's rules and policies. New members often find that habits from their previous jobs no longer work in the new environment (Gabriel et al., 2000, p. 16). Many organizations use clear steps to help new employees adjust successfully (Harris, 1990).

Once someone becomes part of an organization, rituals of belonging and exclusion occur (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 248). Belonging rituals show that a person is accepted by the organization or workgroup (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 248).

Organization rites are planned activities that have both practical and meaningful purposes (Harris & Nelson 2008, p. 250). In businesses, examples include hiring tests, training programs, and discussions about workplace agreements. These activities not only help achieve goals but also show important cultural values (Trice & Beyer, 1985, pp. 372–373).

Related theories

The symbolic behavior perspective is closely connected to symbolic interactionism (SI). SI focuses on how people connect and share meaning. Philosopher Susanne Langer developed a symbol theory that says symbolism is central to philosophy because it is the basis for how humans learn and understand things (Littlejohn & Foss, p. 105). Langer believed that while all animals are guided by feelings, humans use symbols, language, and ideas to process feelings. Animals react to signs, but humans process signs in a more complex way. This perspective also studies symbolic communication, which involves observing animal societies to understand how symbols influence group behavior. Symbolic behavior is also linked to the work of American anthropologist Leslie Alvin White (1940), who said, "all human behavior originates in the use of symbols." He believed human behavior and symbolic behavior are the same. The symbolic behavior perspective is also related to organizational communication and interpersonal relationships, which involve interactions between people working together to reach goals.