Pleistocene Park, also known as Плейстоценовый парк in Russian, is a nature reserve located on the Kolyma River, south of Chersky in the Sakha Republic, Russia. It is in northeastern Siberia, where scientists are trying to rebuild the northern subarctic steppe grassland ecosystem that existed in the area during the last glacial period.
The project is led by Russian scientists Sergey Zimov and Nikita Zimov. They are testing the idea that reintroducing large herbivores and predators can help restore grassland ecosystems. This is based on the belief that overhunting, not climate change, was the main cause of the extinction of many animals and the loss of grasslands at the end of the Pleistocene epoch.
The goal of the project is to study how changes in the ecosystem might affect the climate. Scientists believe that replacing tundra with grasslands could increase the amount of energy released compared to energy absorbed in the area. This change might reduce the melting of permafrost and lower the release of greenhouse gases. It is also thought that large herbivores removing snow could make permafrost less insulated.
To study these effects, scientists have released large herbivores into the area and are observing how they affect the local plants. Early results show that the less productive tundra area is becoming a more productive grassland area, and the energy released from the region is increasing.
Research goals
The main goal of Pleistocene Park is to recreate the mammoth steppe, which was a type of ancient grassland that covered much of Siberia during the last ice age. Scientists believe that animals, not changes in the climate, were the main reason this ecosystem existed. By bringing back large herbivores, such as mammoths and other big grazing animals, to Siberia, researchers hope to start a cycle that could help grasslands return. This idea is the reason scientists are reintroducing these large animals to the area, as shown by evidence from fossils found in the region.
The grassland ecosystem that covered Siberia during the Pleistocene era disappeared about 10,000 years ago. It was replaced by a tundra and taiga ecosystem, which includes more moss, shrubs, and trees. At the same time, most of the large herbivores that lived in Siberia during the Pleistocene are no longer there. The traditional explanation for this change was that the climate became wetter, which caused the grasslands to disappear and the animals that depended on them to vanish. However, Sergei Zimov and his team argue that this explanation is incorrect.
Zimov and his colleagues believe that humans played a major role in the disappearance of the mammoth steppe. As humans developed better hunting tools and techniques, they hunted large herbivores so heavily that many of these animals went extinct. Without these animals to eat the grasses and trample the ground, shrubs, trees, and mosses grew and replaced the grasslands. If the loss of grasslands was caused by the disappearance of herbivores due to human hunting, then bringing back these animals could help restore the grassland ecosystem.
Another goal of Pleistocene Park is to study how changes in the ecosystem might affect the climate. Scientists believe that the actions of large herbivores, such as eating trees and shrubs or walking on snow, can make the ground cooler in winter. This cooler ground may reduce the melting of permafrost during summer, which could lower the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Permafrost is a large layer of frozen ground that has remained frozen for much of the Holocene era. However, recent climate changes have caused permafrost to begin thawing. When permafrost thaws, it releases stored carbon into the environment. This carbon can form thermokarst lakes, where it is converted into carbon dioxide and methane, which are released into the air. Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas, and the methane released from thermokarst lakes could create a cycle that worsens global climate change. This cycle could lead to more permafrost thaw and even more greenhouse gas emissions.
The amount of carbon stored in permafrost worldwide (1,670 gigatons) is about twice the amount of carbon currently in the atmosphere (720 gigatons). If this cycle continues, it could lead to a situation where climate change becomes uncontrollable. Even if the Arctic had the same conditions as it did 400,000 years ago—when grasslands covered the region instead of tundra—a global temperature increase of 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit) compared to pre-industrial levels would be enough to start thawing permafrost in Siberia. However, making the ground cooler in winter, as reintroducing herbivores might do, could delay this process.
Implementation
It has been suggested that bringing back many large plant-eating animals could help restore their ancient roles in Siberia and rebuild the landscapes of the Pleistocene era, including habitats like taiga, tundra, steppe, and alpine areas.
The main goal is to recreate the large grasslands that covered the Beringia region during the late Pleistocene.
Today, only a few of the large animals that once lived in Siberia remain, and their numbers are too low to affect the environment. To achieve the desired results, scientists plan to increase the number of these animals by fencing them in and concentrating them in specific areas. Using a variety of species is important because each affects the environment differently, and more species lead to a more stable ecosystem. Scientists will also reintroduce animals that are no longer in the area, such as muskoxen. For animals that are completely extinct, they may bring in similar species, like wild Bactrian camels to replace the extinct Pleistocene camels of the genus Paracamelus. As the number of herbivores grows, the enclosure will be expanded.
During this process, scientists will monitor the effects on the environment. This includes observing changes in plants (such as whether mosses are replaced by grasses), changes in the atmosphere (like levels of methane, carbon dioxide, and water vapor), and changes in permafrost.
Once a large number of herbivores live in a wide area, scientists will introduce larger predators, such as those bigger than wolves, to help control the herbivore population.
The first grazing experiments began in 1988 at the Northeast Science Station in Chersky with Yakutian horses. In 1996, a 50-hectare (125-acre) enclosure was built in Pleistocene Park. Yakutian horses were introduced first because they were the most common large animals on the ancient mammoth steppe. Of the first 40 horses, 15 were killed by predators, and 12 died from eating poisonous plants. More horses were brought in, and they learned to survive in the area. By 2006, about 20 horses lived in the park, and by 2007, more horses were born than died. By 2013, the number had grown to about 30. Moose, which were already in the region, were also added. To mimic the effects of large animals like mammoths and wisents, scientists used an engineering tank and an 8-wheel drive Argo all-terrain vehicle to crush pathways through willow shrubs.
The vegetation in the park began to change. In areas where horses grazed, the soil became more compact, and mosses, weeds, and willow shrubs were replaced by grasses. Flat grasslands now dominate the park. Grazing animals also helped protect permafrost. During very cold winters, when air temperatures reached -40°C (-40°F), the ground under a thick snow cover was only -5°C (23°F), but in areas where animals trampled the snow, the ground was -30°C (-22°F). This shows that grazing animals help keep permafrost intact, reducing methane release from the tundra.
In 2004–2005, a new fence was built, creating a 16-kilometer (6-square-mile) enclosure. This allowed the project to grow faster. After the fence was completed, reindeer were brought to the park from nearby herds and are now the most common large animals there. To increase the number of moose, special parts of the fence were added to let moose from outside the park enter but not leave. Scientists also captured wild moose calves from other regions and moved them to the park.
In 2007, a 32-meter (105-foot) tower was built in the park to continuously measure methane, carbon dioxide, and water vapor levels in the air.
In September 2010, six male muskoxen from Wrangel Island were reintroduced, but two died in the first months: one from unknown causes and another from fighting among the muskoxen. In April 2011, six Altai wapiti and five wisents arrived. The wapiti came from the Altai Mountains, and the wisents came from a nature reserve near Moscow. However, the fence was too low for the wapiti, and by the end of 2012, all six had escaped.
From 2011 to 2016, progress slowed as scientists focused on building a 150-hectare (370-acre) branch of Pleistocene Park near Tula in Russia. During this time, more reindeer and moose were added to the original park, and a system to measure the energy balance of the grasslands was installed.
Recently, attention has returned to developing Pleistocene Park further. A successful crowdfunding effort in early 2017 provided money to bring more animals. Later that year, 12 domestic yaks and 30 domestic sheep were added, and plans to bring more muskoxen were made for 2020.
In the near future, the focus will be on introducing browsers, such as bison, muskoxen, horses, and domestic yaks, which help reduce shrubs and trees and increase grassy areas. Once enough grasslands are restored, grazers like saiga and wild Bactrian camels will be added.
In 2023, 24 plains bison were brought to the park from a farm in Denmark. Later that year, 14 muskoxen were also added to the park.
Reception
Critics warn that bringing in foreign species might harm the delicate environment of the current tundra. Sergey Zimov responded by saying, "The tundra is not an ecosystem. These systems did not exist on Earth before large animals like mammoths disappeared. There is nothing special to protect in the tundra. It would be unwise to turn the tundra into a desert, but if the same area became a steppe, the environment would improve. If animals like deer, foxes, and cattle were more common, nature and people would both benefit. However, there are still risks, so care must be taken. For example, small animals could be dangerous if released without control. Large herbivores, though, are easy to manage if needed."
Another concern is whether most species can survive in such harsh conditions. Some critics argue that Yakutian horses, though living in the park for many generations, would not have survived without human help. These horses can normally survive temperatures as low as -60°C, but they struggle with heavy snowfall and might have died from hunger during the first snowy winter. However, horses from a less hardy breed, left behind by the Japanese Army, have lived freely on the Kuril Islands since 1945. These islands have snowfall two to three times deeper than in Yakutia, yet the horses have survived every winter without food. In Pleistocene Park, some Yakutian horses receive extra food, while others live on their own without it.
The Zimovs’ idea of creating Pleistocene Park and restoring the mammoth steppe is listed as one of the "100 most important solutions to global warming" by Project Drawdown. This list includes only solutions that are already possible and supported by science. It was created by a team of over 200 experts, including scientists, leaders, and activists. For each solution, the impact on carbon emissions, costs, and long-term savings were studied and calculated.
In January 2020, a study led by Nikita Zimov and three researchers from the University of Oxford examined how feasible the park’s goals would be on a larger scale. The study estimated that if three large experimental areas were created, each with 1,000 animals and costing $114 million over ten years, they could store 72,000 metric tons of carbon and earn $360,000 from carbon credits.
A full-length documentary titled Pleistocene Park was released in 2022, directed by Luke Griswold-Tergis.
Visitors
The park is a center where scientists and students from many countries gather to carry out their own studies about nature. From 2009 to 2015, the Polaris Project visited the park each year, taking American students on trips to the park every summer.
Another group of visitors includes journalists. The park is receiving more attention from the media. Most journalists do not visit the park directly, but the number of people coming to the park is growing. For example, in 2016, the park was visited by a filmmaker, two print newspapers (Swiss 24 Heures and American The Atlantic), and two TV companies (German ARD and American HBO).
In 2016, during the summer months, the park had 45 visitors.
Size and administration
Pleistocene Park is a 160 km scientific nature reserve (zakaznik) that includes willow thickets, grasslands, swamps, forests, and many lakes. The average temperature in January is about –33 °C, and in July it is +12 °C. The annual rainfall ranges from 200 to 250 mm.
The park is owned and managed by a non-profit organization called the Pleistocene Park Association. This group includes ecologists from the Northeast Science Station in Chersky and the Grassland Institute in Yakutsk. The land for the park was given to the association by the government and does not require payment of land taxes. A 600 km buffer zone surrounds the park. This area will be added to the park by the regional government once the animals living there are thriving.
In July 2015, the "Pleistocene Park Foundation" was created. It is a non-profit organization registered in Pennsylvania, U.S., with 501(c)(3) status. Its goal is to collect private donations to support the park. Before this, the park was funded only by the founders, but this became difficult to sustain over time.
In 2019, the "Pleistocene & Permafrost Foundation" was established in Germany by Michael Kurzeja and Bernd Zehentbauer. It connects science, government, businesses, and the public. The foundation helps fund the park, seeks donations of equipment like tractors and trucks, and supports research projects with the Max Planck Institute. Dirk Steffens and Anabel Ternès are involved as ambassadors.
Animals
The park is named after the Jurassic Park franchise, but the staff does not work on research to bring back extinct species, such as through cloning, changing DNA, or breeding similar animals. However, Zimov has shown a willingness to offer the park as a place for reintroducing animals if they are ever created, especially the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), an animal that helped shape its environment, and there are no similar animals alive today. Right now, the staff uses a vehicle to knock down large trees that the park's animals can't break but that mammoths could. This creates open areas where the animals can graze and turn the forest into grassland. The vehicle is called the "baby mammoth."
Southern branch of Pleistocene Park: The Wild Field wilderness reserve
Between 2012 and 2014, a branch of Pleistocene Park called "Wild Field" (Russian: Дикое поле, Dikoe pole) was built near the city of Tula in Tula Oblast, in the European region of Russia, about 250 km (150 mi) south of Moscow.
Unlike Pleistocene Park, Wild Field's main goal is not scientific research but to help the public learn about what a steppe ecosystem looked like before humans lived there. It is located near a major road and a train station, making it easy for people to visit.
Wild Field covers 300 hectares (740 acres), of which 280 hectares are enclosed with fences and filled with animals. The area currently includes nine types of large herbivores and one omnivore species: Bashkir horses (a type of Equus ferus caballus) from the southern part of the Ural Mountains, Altai maral / Altai wapiti (Cervus canadensis sibiricus), Edilbaevskaya sheep (a type of Ovis orientalis aries), roe deer (Capreolus spec.), Kalmykian cattle (a type of Bos primigenius taurus), domestic yaks (Bos mutus grunniens), wild boar (Sus scrofa), one female elk / moose (Alces alces), four reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), and 73 domestic Pridonskaya goats (a type of Capra aegagrus hircus).