Insular art, also called Hiberno-Saxon art, was created in Great Britain and Ireland during the time after the Roman Empire ended in those regions. The word "Insular" comes from the Latin word insula, meaning "island." During this time, art in Britain and Ireland shared a similar style that was different from the rest of Europe. Art experts often place Insular art within the Migration Period art movement and Early Medieval Western art. This style combines elements from both traditions, creating a unique look.
Most Insular art was made by Irish monks who followed Celtic Christianity or for wealthy people of the time. This period began around the year 600, when Celtic and Anglo-Saxon styles were combined. A key feature of this art is interlace decoration, such as the designs found at Sutton Hoo in East Anglia. This style was used to decorate new types of objects, especially books, which were often copied from designs in the Mediterranean region.
The most important period of Insular art ended because of the Viking raids that started in the late 700s. These raids disrupted monasteries and the lives of wealthy people, possibly interrupting the creation of the Book of Kells. No later religious books were as beautifully decorated as those made in the 8th century. In England, this style blended with Anglo-Saxon art by the year 900. In Ireland, the style lasted until the 1100s, when it merged with Romanesque art. Important centers of this art included Ireland, Scotland, and the kingdom of Northumbria in northern England. Examples were also found in southern England, Wales, and parts of mainland Europe, especially in Gaul (modern-day France), where missions from Ireland and Anglo-Saxon regions had established communities.
Insular art is best seen in illuminated manuscripts, metalwork, and carved stone, especially stone crosses. These works are highly decorated with detailed patterns, but they do not show depth, volume, or distance. Notable examples include the Book of Kells, the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Book of Durrow, the Tara Brooch, and the Ruthwell Cross. Carpet pages, which are pages filled with intricate patterns, are a common feature in Insular manuscripts. Other elements include historiated initials (a unique Insular invention), canon tables, and images of religious figures, such as portraits of the Evangelists.
Designation
The word "Insular," meaning related to islands, comes from the term "Insular script," first mentioned in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1908. However, evidence suggests this term was already in use earlier, with Carola Hicks noting its first use in 1901. Linguists also use "Insular" to describe the Insular Celtic languages. Originally, the term referred to the decorative style seen in illuminated manuscripts, which are the most common surviving examples of this style. Today, the term is used more broadly across all forms of art and to describe groups of people, such as the "Insular Celts." This term helps highlight the shared artistic style found in Britain and Ireland, avoids using the phrase "British Isles," which is a sensitive topic in Ireland, and avoids debates about where the style originated and where specific works were created, which were common in the 20th century and may return in the 21st century.
Some sources divide the Insular style into two time periods: a longer span from the 5th to 11th centuries, covering the end of the Roman era to the start of the Romanesque style, and a shorter period from the 6th to 9th centuries, focusing on the time after the adoption of Christianity and before Viking settlements. However, C. R. Dodwell notes that in Ireland, the Insular style remained largely unchanged until the Anglo-Norman invasion in 1170. Examples of this style even appear in the 13th and 14th centuries.
Insular decoration
The Insular style is best known for its very detailed, complex, and creative designs, which include elements from earlier artistic traditions. Late Iron Age Celtic art, called "Ultimate La Tène," inspired the use of spirals, triskeles, circles, and other geometric shapes. These were mixed with animal shapes, mostly influenced by the Germanic version of the Eurasian animal style, though also from Celtic art, where scroll-like endings on animal heads were common. Both the Celtic and Germanic traditions, as well as Roman art (such as in floor mosaics), used interlace patterns. These influences were combined in new ways in Insular art, along with the other elements already mentioned.
Manuscript paintings from this period do not show depth. Instead, they focus on creating a surface filled with bright, detailed patterns. In early works, human figures were shown in the same geometric style as animals, but over time, artists began to use a style similar to classical figures, likely influenced by southern Anglo-Saxon regions. Northern areas also had direct connections with the Continent. The design of the carpet page, a common feature in manuscripts, is often linked to Roman floor mosaics, Coptic carpets, and manuscript paintings. However, scholars do not agree on its exact origins.
Background
Unlike modern Byzantine art and other major art periods, Insular art did not develop in a society where similar artistic styles appeared across many types of objects, such as paintings, crafts, and decorations. The islands where Insular art was created were mostly rural, with simple buildings and no single architectural style. While many objects made from materials that do not last long likely existed and were lost over time, it is clear that both religious and non-religious leaders in Insular society wanted individual items that showed high skill and creativity. These items stood out more because the everyday world around them had little artistic complexity.
In Ireland, religious and non-religious leaders were often closely connected, with some church positions passed down through families for many generations. Ireland was divided into many small "kingdoms," too numerous for historians to easily track, while Britain had fewer, larger kingdoms. Both Celtic (Irish and Pictish) and Anglo-Saxon leaders had long traditions of creating high-quality metalwork, often used for personal decoration by both men and women in the elite classes. The Insular style developed from the blending of Celtic and Anglo-Saxon artistic styles, especially the animal patterns of the Anglo-Saxons, within a Christian context. This style was also influenced by Late Antique art, particularly in its use of books, a new type of object for both traditions, and in metalwork.
The Kingdom of Northumbria played a key role in forming the new Insular style. As the northernmost Anglo-Saxon kingdom, it expanded into areas with Celtic populations but often left those groups largely unchanged in places like Dál Riata, Elmet, and the Kingdom of Strathclyde. The Irish monastery at Iona was founded by Saint Columba in 563, when Iona was part of the Dál Riata, which included land in both Ireland and modern Scotland. Although the first conversion of a Northumbrian king, Edwin in 627, was led by missionaries from Kent, the Celtic Christian influence of Iona initially had more impact in Northumbria. This influence led to the founding of Lindisfarne on the east coast in 635. However, Northumbria remained connected to Rome, and other important monasteries were established by figures like Wilfrid and Benedict Biscop, who followed Roman traditions. At the Synod of Whitby, Roman practices were supported, while the group from Iona left, not adopting the Roman method for calculating Easter until 715.
The general agreement about the origins of the Insular style may be challenged by ongoing studies of many decorated metal items found in the Staffordshire Hoard, discovered in 2009, and to a lesser extent, the Prittlewell princely burial in Essex, found in 2003.
Metalwork
Christianity discouraged burying items with the dead. This led to more pre-Christian items surviving from the Anglo-Saxon period than later times. Most surviving items from the Christian period were quickly hidden, lost, or abandoned. A few exceptions include arm-shaped reliquaries, like the Shrine of Saint Lachtin's Arm, and portable book-shaped ("cumdachs") or house-shaped shrines. These items were mostly owned by churches on the Continent, though the Monymusk Reliquary has always been in Scotland.
Most surviving items were discovered by chance, and only parts of some objects remain, especially large or hard-to-carry items. The highest quality surviving items are secular jewelry, likely for men, or tableware and altarware that look very similar. Some pieces cannot be clearly identified as altar or royal dining items. It is likely that the finest church items were made by secular workshops, often linked to royal households, while others were made by monastic workshops. Evidence suggests Irish metalworkers created many of the best pieces, but items from the Sutton Hoo royal burial, in eastern England, are also very finely made. Some items, like parts of the Ardagh Chalice, show less skill than other parts, suggesting craftsmen may not have designed all sections.
Many large penannular brooches, similar in quality to the Tara Brooch, survive. These are mostly in major museums, such as the British Museum or the National Museum of Ireland. Each brooch has unique designs and high-quality workmanship. Some design elements match those in manuscripts. Many metalworking techniques used in Insular art are found in surviving items. Decorative stones include semi-precious materials like amber, rock crystal, and garnets. Colored glass, enamel, and millefiori glass, likely imported, are also used, as seen in the Ballinderry Brooch.
The Rinnegan Crucifixion Plaque, a gilt-bronze piece from the late 7th or early 8th century, is one of nine known Irish Crucifixion plaques. It resembles figures on high crosses and may have come from a book cover or been part of a larger altar or cross.
The Ardagh Chalice and the Derrynaflan Hoard, discovered in 1980, are among the most important surviving church metal items. These date to the 8th or 9th century, though exact dates are uncertain. Only fragments remain of large church items like shrines or crosses. Insular croziers, which have a unique shape, mostly survive from Ireland or Scotland and date to the later Insular period. These later croziers show Viking influences, with interlace patterns in Ringerike or Urnes styles.
The Cross of Cong, a 12th-century Irish processional cross and reliquary, displays Insular decoration, possibly added to revive older styles.
It is hard to imagine the fittings of major abbey churches from the Insular period. However, it is clear that highly decorated manuscripts were displayed as art, not for study. The Book of Kells, the most decorated manuscript, has uncorrected mistakes and missing text needed for Canon tables. When it was stolen in 1006 for its metal cover, it was taken from the sacristy, not the library. The cover was not recovered, as happened with the Book of Lindisfarne. No major Insular manuscripts have preserved their original jeweled covers, but documents suggest they were as elaborate as surviving examples. The Lindau Gospels’ metal cover, now in the Morgan Library, was made in southern Germany with Insular influence. It features a cross and interlace patterns, with cloisonné enamel showing Italian influence. The design resembles a carpet page.
- The Tara Brooch, c. 710 to 750 AD
- Rinnegan Crucifixion Plaque, 8th century
- Monymusk Reliquary, 8th century
- The Derrynaflan Chalice, 8th or 9th century
- Cumdach for the Stowe Missal, c. 1026
- Shrine of Saint Lachtin's Arm, early 10th century
- The Clonmacnoise Crozier, 11th century
- Soiscél Molaisse, metalwork added in the 11th century
Illuminated manuscripts
Cathach of St. Columba. This is an Irish Latin psalter from the early 7th century. It may be the oldest known Irish manuscript of any kind. The text contains only decorated letters at the start of each Psalm. These letters show unique features. Not only the first letter, but the next few letters are decorated, and they get smaller as they go. The decoration changes the shape of the letters, and different styles are mixed in a way that is not typical. Lines begin to curve and change shape, as shown in an example. Black ink is used, and some orange ink is used for small dots. In the classical tradition, capital letters were not often used for initials. Even when they were used, they were often placed in the left margin, as if separated from the rest of the text. The Insular style, which includes decoration that moves into the text and covers more space, was a new and different approach. The Bobbio Jerome, which has an inscription dating it to before 622, comes from Bobbio Abbey, an Irish mission center in northern Italy. It has more detailed initials with color, showing more developed Insular features. The Bobbio Orosius, from the same place and time, has the earliest carpet page, though it is simple.
Durham Gospel Book Fragment. This is the oldest surviving painted Insular manuscript, made in Lindisfarne around 650. Only seven pages remain, not all decorated. It introduces interlace patterns and uses Celtic designs from metalwork. Two of the surviving pages are connected as a two-page spread.
Book of Durrow. This is the earliest surviving Gospel Book with full decoration, though not all of it remains. It has six carpet pages, a full-page image of the four evangelists' symbols, four full-page images of the evangelists' symbols, four pages with large initials, and decorated text on other pages. Many small groups of initials are also decorated. Its date and origin are debated, with suggestions of 650–690 and locations such as Durrow in Ireland, Iona, or Lindisfarne. The decoration includes cross motifs, ribbon interlace, lattice work, carpet pages, and the evangelists' symbols. After large initials, the following letters on the same line are decorated at smaller sizes. Dots around large initials are common. The figures are stylized, and some pages use Germanic interlaced animal designs, while others use Celtic geometric spirals. Each page has a unique set of decorative patterns. Only four colors are used, but the viewer does not notice any limits. All elements of Insular manuscript style are already present. The work is of high quality but not as refined as later books, and the details are not as small.
Lindisfarne Gospels. Made in Lindisfarne by Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, between about 690 and his death in 721, this Gospel Book follows the style of the Book of Durrow but is more detailed. All letters at the start of the Gospels are highly decorated in one composition. Many two-page spreads are designed as a unit, with carpet pages facing an incipit ("Here begins…") initial page at the start of each Gospel. Eadfrith was likely both the scribe and artist. There are four Evangelist portraits, clearly inspired by classical art but without depth. The borders around the portraits are simpler than the text pages, showing two distinct styles. The carpet pages are very complex and beautifully made.
Lichfield Gospels. Likely made in Lichfield around 730, this is a finely decorated Gospel Book. It has eight major decorated pages, including a cross-carpet page and portraits of the evangelists Mark and Luke. The Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and the beginning of Luke, survive. Pages from its time in Wales include some of the earliest examples of Old Welsh writing. The manuscript has been in Lichfield Cathedral since the late 10th century, except for a short time during the English Civil War.
St Petersburg Bede. This manuscript is attributed to Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbey in Northumbria between about 730–746. It has large opening letters with metalwork-style decoration. Thin bands of interlace appear within the letters. It also contains the earliest historiated initial, a bust likely of Pope Gregory I, which clearly comes from a Mediterranean design. Color is used but in a limited way.
Book of Kells. Usually dated to around 800, though sometimes earlier, its origin is debated between Iona and Kells, or other locations. It is often thought to have started in Iona and continued in Ireland after Viking attacks. The book is nearly complete, but some parts of the decoration are unfinished, with only outlines. It is more decorated than any previous manuscript, with many small decorated letters on nearly every page. Only one carpet page exists, but the incipit initials are so densely decorated that they serve a similar purpose. Human figures appear more often than before, though they are highly stylized and surrounded by crowded decoration. Books are the most directly shown objects in the illustrations. Scenes such as the Temptation and Arrest of Christ, as well as a Madonna and Child surrounded by angels (the earliest Madonna in a Western book), are included. More miniatures may have been planned or lost. Colors are bright, and the decoration is full of energy, with spiral forms. Gold and silver are not used. The Book of Kells is held in Trinity College Dublin.
A less well-known Insular manuscript in Trinity College Dublin’s library is the Garland of Howth, which is damaged. Two of its decorated pages remain, showing common motifs of the Insular style.
A distinctive type of Insular book is the pocket Gospel Book, which has less decoration but sometimes includes Evangelist portraits and other designs. Examples include the Book of Mulling, Book of Deer, Book of Dimma, Book of Armagh, and the smallest, the Stonyhurst Gospel (now in the British Library), a 7th-century Anglo-Saxon text of the Gospel of John that belonged to St. Cuthbert and was buried with him. Its beautifully tooled goatskin cover is the oldest surviving Western bookbinding and a rare example of Insular leatherwork, well-preserved.
Both Anglo-Saxon and Irish manuscripts have a rougher finish on their vellum compared to the smooth, polished vellum of contemporary continental and late-medieval manuscripts. It appears that scribes
Sculpture
Large stone high crosses, often built near monasteries or churches, first appeared in Ireland around the 8th century. These may have been created at Carndonagh, Donegal, a monastic site with Ionian influences. These Irish crosses likely came later than the earliest Anglo-Saxon crosses, which date back to the 7th century.
Later carvings found across Britain and Ireland were mostly geometric in design, similar to the earliest crosses. By the 9th century, figures began to appear on crosses. The largest crosses featured many scenes with figures on all sides. Old Testament scenes were often on the east side, New Testament scenes on the west, and the Crucifixion was usually at the center of the cross. The 10th-century Muiredach's High Cross at Monasterboice is widely considered the finest example of Irish high crosses. In later crosses, the number of figures decreased, and their size increased. Their style gradually became similar to the Romanesque style, as seen in the Dysert Cross in Ireland.
The 8th-century Northumbrian Ruthwell Cross, which was damaged by Presbyterian iconoclasm, is the most notable surviving Anglo-Saxon cross. However, the original cross head is missing, as is common with many Anglo-Saxon crosses. Most Anglo-Saxon crosses were smaller and slimmer than Irish crosses, leaving little space for detailed figures. Exceptions include the Bewcastle Cross, Easby Cross, and Sandbach Crosses, which have large areas with carved figures, some larger than early Irish examples. Even early Anglo-Saxon crosses combined vine-scroll designs from the Continent with interlace patterns. Over time, vine-scroll designs became more common, similar to patterns in manuscripts. Literary records suggest many stone crosses existed across England, including straight shafts used as grave markers. Most surviving examples are found in northern counties. Other monumental sculptures from the Anglo-Saxon period also remain, but no similar works from Ireland are known.
Pictish standing stones
The stone monuments built by the Picts in northern Scotland between the 6th and 8th centuries are impressive in design and construction. These stones were carved in a style common to Easter Ross, similar to the art of the Insular tradition, but with less influence from classical art. The animal shapes on the stones are often similar to those in Insular manuscripts, where they usually represent the symbols of the Evangelists. This might suggest that the Picts created these designs or that both traditions shared a common source. The carvings come from both pagan and early Christian times. The Pictish symbols, which are still not fully understood, did not seem to be disliked by Christians. The purpose and meaning of the stones are not completely clear, but some people believe they were personal memorials. The symbols may have shown connections to clans, families, or groups, and could represent ancient ceremonies or rituals. Examples include the Eassie Stone and the Hilton of Cadboll Stone. It is also possible that the stones marked areas belonging to tribes or families. Some scholars suggest the symbols might have been a form of picture-based writing.
Pictish silver jewelry also shows similar designs. Examples include the Norrie's Law Hoard, from the 7th century or earlier, and the 8th-century St Ninian's Isle Hoard, which included brooches and bowls. Many items from these collections were melted down when discovered, but the remaining pieces are now kept at the National Museum of Scotland.
Legacy
The true legacy of Insular art is not found in its specific artistic styles, but in how it completely changed the classical way of decorating objects, whether books or other artworks. The wild, energetic designs of Insular art, which spread across structured areas, influenced later medieval art, especially Gothic art, even in places where Insular symbols were rarely used, such as buildings. The blending of images with patterns remained a key feature in all later medieval illuminated manuscripts. In fact, the complexity and richness of this combination in Insular manuscripts are only matched by some 15th-century works from late Flemish illumination. It is also clear that these features were more common in northern Europe than in southern Europe; even during the Gothic period, Italian art always kept a clear, classical style in its forms.
Clear evidence of Insular influence can be seen in Carolingian manuscripts, even though these works also tried to copy the artistic styles of Rome and Byzantium. Large, sometimes decorated initials were kept, along with more abstract designs than those found in classical art. These features continued in Ottonian and French artwork and metalwork from the same time period. Later, during the Romanesque period, classical artistic rules were further relaxed, especially in manuscripts and the carved tops of columns.