Roman Britain was the area that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Romans conquered Britain. This area included a large part of the island of Great Britain. The Roman occupation of Britain lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.
Britain was invaded by Julius Caesar in 55 and 54 BC as part of the Gallic Wars. Caesar claimed that the Britons had been conquered or influenced by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had supported Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic group to travel across the sea to Britain, as other Celtic tribes were unfamiliar with the land. Caesar received gifts, placed the Celtic king Mandubracius in charge of the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Plans for invasions by Augustus were canceled in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In AD 40, Caligula gathered 200,000 soldiers at the Channel on the continent, but they collected seashells (musculi), according to Suetonius, possibly as a symbolic act to show Caligula's control over the sea. Three years later, Claudius sent four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni and organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By AD 47, the Romans controlled the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed due to setbacks and the impact of Boudica's rebellion, but the Romans gradually expanded northward.
The conquest of Britain continued under Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who extended the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84, Agricola faced the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Tacitus estimated that over 10,000 Caledonians and about 360 Romans were killed in the battle. The Battle of Mons Graupius marked the end of the forty-year Roman conquest of Britain, a period that may have resulted in 100,000 to 250,000 Britons dying. Considering pre-industrial warfare and Britain’s estimated population of about 2 million at the time, these numbers were very high.
During the 2nd century, emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius built two walls to protect the Roman province from the Caledonians: Hadrian’s Wall (made of stone) and the Antonine Wall (largely of turf). Hadrian’s Wall is better preserved. Around AD 197, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. In the early fourth century, Britannia was split into four provinces, each managed by a vicarius, who reported to the praetorian prefecture of the Gallic region, based in Trier. A fifth province, Valentia, was recorded in the later 4th century. For much of the later Roman period, Britannia faced attacks from barbarian groups and was often controlled by imperial claimants. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; after this, native kingdoms formed Sub-Roman Britain.
After conquering the Britons, a unique Romano-British culture developed as the Romans introduced better farming methods, city planning, industry, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became a symbol of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians rarely mentioned Britain. Most knowledge today comes from archaeological findings and occasional inscriptions praising an emperor’s achievements in Britain. Roman citizens from across the Empire settled in Britain.
History
Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks called these islands the Cassiterides, which means "tin islands," and they thought they were near the west coast of Europe. A Carthaginian sailor named Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC, and a Greek explorer named Pytheas visited in the 4th century BC. Some people thought the island was a place of mystery, and some writers doubted it even existed.
The first direct contact between the Romans and Britain happened when Julius Caesar led two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC. He was trying to conquer Gaul and believed the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first trip was more of a scouting mission than a full invasion. Caesar's forces landed on the coast of Kent but could not move further because of storm damage to their ships and a lack of cavalry. Even though the military mission failed, it was a political success. The Roman Senate celebrated for 20 days in Rome to honor the achievement of taking hostages from Britain and defeating some tribes.
The second invasion had a much larger force. Caesar persuaded or forced many Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in exchange for peace. He placed a friendly local king named Mandubracius in power and made peace with his rival, Cassivellaunus. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree about whether any tribute was paid after Caesar left. Caesar did not conquer any land or leave troops behind, but he created alliances and brought Britain into Rome's influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27, and 25 BC, but none were successful. Instead, Britain and Rome had a relationship based on diplomacy and trade.
A Greek writer named Strabo, who lived during Augustus's time, said that taxes from trade brought more money than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that more luxury goods from other places were found in southeastern Britain. Strabo also wrote about British kings who sent messages to Augustus, and Augustus's own writings mention two British kings who came to him as refugees. In 16 AD, some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain by a storm during his campaigns in Germany. The sailors returned with stories about monsters.
Rome seemed to support a balance of power in southern Britain, helping two strong kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by descendants of Commius. This policy continued until around AD 39 or 40, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian family and planned an invasion of Britain. The plan failed in a humiliating way before it even began. When Claudius invaded Britain in AD 43, it was to help another exiled British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.
The invasion force in AD 43 was led by Aulus Plautius, but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The II Augusta Legion, led by future emperor Vespasian, is the only one confirmed to have taken part. The IX Hispana, XIV Gemina (later called Martia Victrix), and XX (later called Valeria Victrix) legions were known to have fought during the Boudican revolt in 60/61 AD and may have been present during the initial invasion. However, the Roman army was flexible, and units were often moved as needed. The IX Hispana may have been stationed permanently, as records show it in York in 71 AD and on a building inscription there from 108 AD. It was later destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.
The invasion was delayed by a mutiny among the troops until an imperial freedman convinced them to cross the ocean and fight beyond the known world. The Romans sailed in three groups and likely landed at Richborough in Kent. Some troops may have landed near Fishbourne in West Sussex.
The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, if the landing was at Richborough, on the river Medway, and the second on the river Thames. One leader, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother, Caratacus, survived and continued fighting. Plautius stopped at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, to march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian controlled the southwest, and a friendly king named Cogidubnus was placed in charge of several territories. Treaties were made with tribes not directly under Roman control.
After taking control of the south, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices, and Deceangli resisted the Romans strongly and were the main focus of Roman military efforts for the first few decades. There were occasional uprisings among Roman allies, such as the Brigantes and Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, who fought a successful guerrilla war against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula.
In 51 AD, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a major battle and defeated him. Caratacus fled to the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by handing him over to the Romans. Caratacus was taken to Rome, where he gave a respectful speech during Claudius's victory parade, and Claudius decided not to kill him. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband, Venutius, became the most prominent leader of British resistance.
When Nero became emperor, Roman control in Britain reached as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, who had conquered Mauretania (modern-day Algeria and Morocco), became governor of Britain and attacked Mona (Anglesey) in 60 and 61 AD to end Druidism. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and destroyed the Druids' sacred groves.
While Paulinus was fighting in Mona, the southeast of Britain rebelled under the leadership of Boudica, the widow of the recently deceased Iceni king, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote that Prasutagus had left a will giving half his kingdom to Nero, hoping the rest would be untouched. This did not happen. When the will was enforced, Rome seized the Iceni's lands. Boudica protested, and Rome punished her and her daughters by beating and raping them. In response, the Iceni and Trinovantes destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodun
Trade
During the Roman period, Britain's trade with the continent mainly took place across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, with a focus on the narrow Strait of Dover. Trade connections through the Atlantic were less common. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, while the main continental ports involved in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the locations of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the Scheldt River. In the Late Roman period, shore forts likely helped with trade, in addition to their role in defense.
Exports to Britain included coins, pottery such as red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central, and eastern Gaul, as well as other goods from Gaul and the Rhine provinces. Olive oil from southern Spain was transported in amphorae, and wine from Gaul came in amphorae and barrels. Salted fish from the western Mediterranean and Brittany arrived in barrels and amphorae, as did preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae. Lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine, glass, and some agricultural products were also sent to Britain. Britain's exports are harder to identify, but they likely included metals like silver and gold, as well as lead, iron, and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters, and salt. Large amounts of coins were also sent back to the continent.
These goods were transported through private trade and through payments and contracts set up by the Roman state to support its military and officials in Britain. The state also collected taxes and extracted resources. Until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state sent more goods to Britain than it took from the island to support its large military force, which numbered about 53,000 by the mid-2nd century.
Some experts suggest that trade between Roman Britain and the continent peaked in the late 1st century AD and then declined. This decline may have happened because the population in Britain began relying more on local products due to economic growth and because the Roman state wanted to save money by reducing expensive long-distance imports. Evidence shows that trade with the continent likely decreased starting around 165 AD, possibly linked to the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars, which affected the Roman Empire.
From the mid-3rd century onward, Britain received fewer and less varied foreign goods than it had earlier in the Roman period. However, large amounts of coins from continental mints reached Britain, and historical records show that British grain was exported to the continent in the mid-4th century. Later in the Roman period, British agricultural products, paid for by the Roman state and private buyers, became important for supporting military bases and cities in northern Europe. This happened because the British military force shrank after the mid-3rd century, allowing more goods to be exported, and because attacks by Germanic groups along the Rhine reduced farming and production in northern Gaul.
Economy
Mineral extraction sites, such as the Dolaucothi gold mine, were likely first used by the Roman army around 75 AD. Later, these mines were operated by civilians. The mine was developed through open-pit mining, mainly using hydraulic methods. Pliny the Elder described these methods in detail in his book Natural History. Water from aqueducts was used to remove soil and expose bedrock to search for ore veins. If veins were found, they were broken apart using fire, and the ore was taken for crushing. The crushed material was washed in a stream, and heavy gold particles were collected in riffles. A diagram shows how Dolaucothi changed from around 75 AD to the 1st century. When open-pit mining became impossible, tunnels were dug to follow the veins. Evidence suggests advanced technology was used, likely managed by army engineers.
The Wealden ironworking area, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills, and the tin mines of Cornwall were operated by private companies that rented land from the government. Mining in Britain had been practiced before the Romans arrived, but the Romans introduced new techniques and large-scale production, transforming the industry. Hydraulic mining was used to remove soil and access alluvial deposits. Water for these operations came from aqueducts, some of which at Dolaucothi are still impressive today. Many mining areas were in remote and dangerous regions, and although mining was a key reason for the Roman invasion, it only began after these areas were controlled.
By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns were often near villas. These towns provided tools for villa owners and farmers. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This wealth supported the growth of villa construction and decoration between AD 300 and 350.
Britain’s cities used Roman-style pottery and other goods, and they served as hubs for distributing items to other regions. In the first two centuries of Roman rule, Britain relied heavily on imported pottery, but by the 4th century, it produced its own. This shift is seen as a sign of economic growth. One town, Durobrivae, mainly made pottery. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, broken pottery from a 2nd-century fire shows Gaulish samian ware and bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry were sold together. Roman designs were popular, but rural artisans still made items inspired by Iron Age La Tène styles. Britain’s wealth in gold attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain’s economy was diverse and well-developed, with trade reaching areas not fully controlled by the Romans.
Government
Under the Roman Empire, the Senate was responsible for managing peaceful provinces. However, provinces that needed permanent military forces, such as Britain, were controlled directly by the Emperor. In practice, imperial provinces were overseen by governors who were members of the Senate and had previously held the position of consul. These governors were carefully chosen for their strong military experience and administrative skills. In Britain, a governor's main duty was military leadership, but they also handled many other tasks, including maintaining relationships with local leaders, building roads, ensuring the postal system worked, managing local communities, and acting as a judge in major legal cases. When not leading military campaigns, governors traveled across the province to listen to complaints and recruit new soldiers.
To help with legal matters, each governor had an adviser called the legatus juridicus. In Britain, these advisers were likely experienced lawyers because of the difficulty of integrating local tribes into the Roman system and creating fair tax methods. Financial matters were managed by a procurator, who had assistants in charge of collecting taxes. Each Roman legion in Britain had a commander who reported to the governor and, during wars, might have directly controlled difficult areas. These positions typically required two to three years of service in different provinces. Below these roles was a group of administrative workers who handled tasks like gathering intelligence, sending reports to Rome, organizing supplies, and managing prisoners. A team of soldiers helped with clerical work.
Colchester was likely the first capital of Roman Britain, but London soon became more important because of its strong trade connections. In Britain, different areas were organized as civitates, which included smaller groups like colonies (such as York, Colchester, Gloucester, and Lincoln) and municipalities (like Verulamium). Each civitas was governed by a local senate made up of landowners, whether native or Roman, who elected officials to handle legal and civic matters. Representatives from each civitas met in an annual provincial council to show loyalty to Rome, send urgent requests to the Emperor, and honor the imperial cult.
Demographics
At the end of the second century, Roman Britain had between 2.8 million and 3 million people. By the end of the fourth century, the population had grown to about 3.6 million. Of these, 125,000 were members of the Roman army and their families and dependents. Around 240,000 people lived in cities during the fourth century, with Londinium, the capital, having a population of about 60,000.
Londinium was a city with people from many different backgrounds, including those from Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Other Roman towns in Britain also had diverse populations due to migration from Britannia and other parts of the Roman Empire, such as continental Europe, Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean, and North Africa. A 2012 study found that about 45% of Roman-era sites examined had at least one person of North African origin.
During their time in Britain, the Romans built many important settlements, many of which still exist today. However, by the later 4th century, these towns began to decline. Public buildings were no longer constructed, and some were left for private use. Many place names from the Roman period survived through the Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, but few Roman towns remained continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the idea of a town as a center of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christian mission to Canterbury, and the revival of urban life did not happen until the 10th century.
Roman towns can be divided into two main types. Civitates, or "public towns," were planned in a grid pattern and included public buildings due to their role in imperial administration. The more common type, vici, or "small towns," developed informally, often near camps, fords, or crossroads. Some vici were large, while others were barely urban, and few had walls, which were typical of important places.
Cities and towns with Roman origins or significant Roman development are listed with their Latin names in parentheses. Civitates are marked with a "C."
Religion
The druids, the religious leaders of the Celtic people who lived in Britain, were banned by the Roman emperor Claudius. In 61 AD, they tried to protect their holy places on the island of Mona (Anglesey) from being destroyed by the Romans. During Roman rule, the Britons still worshipped their native gods, like Ancasta, but sometimes combined them with Roman gods, such as Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.
It is hard to know exactly how much of the old Celtic beliefs remained after the Romans arrived. Some European traditions, such as the importance of the number 3, the head, and water sources like springs, are still found in archaeological remains. However, changes in the types of offerings left at the Roman baths in Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest show that some traditions changed. Worship of the Roman emperor was common, especially at military sites. The building of a temple to Claudius in Camulodunum was one reason for the revolt led by Boudica. By the 3rd century, the Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset existed peacefully and remained until the 5th century.
Pagan religious practices were led by priests, whose items, like chain crowns, have been found in places like West Stow and Willingham Fen.
Religions from the East, such as Mithraism, became more popular near the end of the Roman occupation. The London Mithraeum is an example of how these secret religions were practiced by soldiers. Temples to Mithras also existed in military areas, such as Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (Caernarfon Mithraeum).
It is unclear when or how Christianity arrived in Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" found in Mamucium (the Roman settlement of Manchester) has the letters of "PATER NOSTER" (Our Father) carved on an amphora. Some scholars debate whether this is a Christian artifact, but if it is, it would be one of the earliest known examples of Christianity in Britain. The first confirmed written record of Christianity in Britain comes from Tertullian around 200 AD, who mentioned that "Christ" had followers among the Britons.
Evidence of Christian communities appears in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small wooden churches may have existed in Lincoln and Silchester, and baptismal fonts have been found in Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead and is displayed in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard was also found at Icklingham. A possible 4th-century church and burial ground were discovered in Colchester, built over an earlier pagan cemetery.
The Water Newton Treasure is a collection of Christian silver church items from the early 4th century. Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary had Christian wall paintings and mosaics. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury, with east-west burials and no grave goods, may have been an early Christian burial site, though similar practices were also used by pagans.
The Church in Britain developed an organized system of church areas, as shown by records from the Council of Arles in 314 AD. Bishops from Britain, including Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius (possibly of Lincoln), attended the council. No other early church areas are documented, and few physical remains of early church buildings have been found.
A church in the forum of Lincoln and the martyrium (a shrine) of Saint Alban near Roman Verulamium are rare examples of early Christian sites. Alban, the first British Christian martyr, is believed to have died in the early 4th century, followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity became legal in the Roman Empire in 313 AD under Constantine I, and it was made the official religion in 391 AD under Theodosius I. By the 5th century, Christianity was widespread in Britain. A religious belief called Pelagianism, which was considered a heresy, originated from a British monk named Pelagius who taught in Rome.
A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, dated around 363 AD, was once thought to be evidence of Christianity in Britain. It was claimed to be a message from a Christian man named Vinisius to a Christian woman named Nigra in Wroxeter. However, this translation was incorrect, and the text actually describes pagan rituals, not Christian practices.
Environmental changes
The Romans brought several species to Britain, including the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), which soldiers may have used to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is some evidence that they may have also introduced rabbits of a type found in southern Mediterranean regions. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), which is common in Britain today, is believed to have been brought from the continent after the Norman invasion in 1066. Boxwood (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely found in records before the Roman period but is often discovered in towns and villas from that time.
Legacy
During their time in Britain, the Romans created a large system of roads that continued to be used for many years and are still followed today. They also built systems for clean water, waste removal, and handling dirty water. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium), and York (Eboracum), were started by the Romans. However, these original Roman settlements were later abandoned after the Romans left.
Unlike other parts of the Western Roman Empire, the main language spoken in Britain today is not a Romance language or one that came from the people living there before the Romans arrived. At the time of the Roman invasion, the language spoken was Common Brittonic, and it remained the main language even after the Romans left. Over time, this language split into regional languages, including Cumbric, Cornish, Breton, and Welsh. Studies show that about 800 Latin words were added to Common Brittonic. The current main language, English, came from the languages of Germanic tribes who moved to Britain from Europe starting in the 5th century.