Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban (pronounced /ˈbeɪkən/; January 22, 1561 – April 9, 1626), was an English philosopher and statesman who worked as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England during the time of King James I. Bacon emphasized the importance of natural philosophy, which uses the scientific method, and his writings remained important during the Scientific Revolution.

Bacon is often called the father of empiricism. He believed that scientific knowledge could be gained through inductive reasoning and careful observation of natural events. He thought that scientists should use a skeptical and methodical approach to avoid making mistakes. Although his specific ideas about this method, known as the Baconian method, did not last for a long time, his general belief in the value of a skeptical approach helped shape the scientific method. His focus on skepticism introduced a new way of thinking about science, and his ideas remain important in discussions about scientific methods. Bacon is well known for his role in the Scientific Revolution, as he promoted scientific experiments to honor God and understand scripture.

Bacon supported libraries and created a system for organizing books into three main categories: history, poetry, and philosophy. These categories could be further divided into specific subjects and subheadings. He once said, "Some books are to be tasted; others swallowed; and some few to be chewed and digested." A fringe theory, first proposed in the mid-19th century, suggests that Bacon may have written some or all of the plays traditionally attributed to William Shakespeare.

Bacon studied at Trinity College, University of Cambridge, where he followed the medieval curriculum, which was mostly taught in Latin. He was the first person to receive the Queen's counsel designation in 1597 when Queen Elizabeth I named him her legal advisor. After King James I took the throne in 1603, Bacon was knighted, then made Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St Alban in 1621. He had no children, so both titles ended when he died in 1626 at the age of 65. He is buried at St Michael's Church in St Albans, Hertfordshire.

Biography

Francis Bacon was born on January 22, 1561, at York House near Strand in London. He was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, who was known as the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, and Anne (Cooke) Bacon, the daughter of Anthony Cooke, a well-known Renaissance humanist. Anne’s sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, making Burghley Bacon’s uncle.

Some historians believe Bacon was educated at home during his early years because of poor health, which he struggled with for most of his life. He received lessons from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford who supported Puritan ideas. In 1573, at age 12, Bacon joined Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. He lived there for three years with his older brother, Anthony Bacon, and studied under John Whitgift, who later became Archbishop of Canterbury. Most of Bacon’s education was in Latin and followed the medieval school curriculum. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who admired his young age and intelligence and often called him “The young lord keeper.”

Bacon believed that the scientific methods used at the time were incorrect. He respected Aristotle but disagreed with Aristotelian philosophy, which he thought was unproductive and wrong in its goals.

On June 27, 1576, Bacon and his brother Anthony joined a group of scholars at Gray’s Inn. Later that year, Francis traveled to France with Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador in Paris, while Anthony stayed home to continue his studies. Bacon observed French government and society under King Henry III, which taught him about politics. Over the next three years, he visited places like Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain. There is no evidence he studied at the University of Poitiers. During his travels, Bacon learned languages, studied government and law, and performed diplomatic tasks. At least once, he delivered important letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, Leicester, and the Queen.

In February 1579, Bacon’s father died suddenly, which made him return to England. His father had saved money to buy an estate for Bacon, but he died before doing so, leaving Bacon with only a fifth of the money. Bacon borrowed money and became in debt. To support himself, he studied law at Gray’s Inn in 1579. His income was also helped by a grant from his mother, Lady Anne, who owned a manor near Romford in Essex that earned £46 in rent each year.

Bacon said he had three goals: to discover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church. He worked to achieve these by seeking important positions. In 1580, through his uncle, Lord Burghley, he applied for a court job that might help him pursue learning, but his application failed. For two years, he worked quietly at Gray’s Inn until he became an outer barrister in 1582.

Bacon’s political career began when he was elected as a member of Parliament for Bossiney, Cornwall, in a special election in 1581. In 1584, he represented Melcombe in Dorset, and in 1586, he represented Taunton. Around this time, he wrote about the state of religious groups and philosophical changes in a work called Temporis Partus Maximus. However, he did not gain the position he wanted. He supported Puritan ideas, attending sermons by a Puritan chaplain and joining his mother at the Temple Church to hear Walter Travers. This led to the publication of his first surviving work, which criticized the English church for limiting Puritan clergy. In the 1586 Parliament, he openly supported the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic.

Later, Bacon again asked his powerful uncle for help, which led to his quick rise in legal work. In 1586, he became a bencher, and in 1587, he was elected a Reader, giving his first set of lectures the next year. In 1589, he received an important future position as Clerk of the Star Chamber, though he did not officially take the job until 1608. The position was worth £1,600 a year.

In 1588, Bacon was elected as a member of Parliament for Liverpool and later for Middlesex in 1593. He later represented Ipswich three times (1597, 1601, 1604) and once for Cambridge University (1614).

Bacon became known as a reformer who wanted to improve and simplify the law. Though he supported the crown, he opposed feudal rights and strong powers. He spoke against religious persecution and challenged the House of Lords for taking control of money bills. He supported the union of England and Scotland, which helped create the United Kingdom, and later promoted the inclusion of Ireland in the Union. Bacon believed stronger ties between these countries would bring more peace and strength.

Bacon became close to Robert Devereux, the 2nd Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth’s favorite. By 1591, he acted as the earl’s secret adviser. In 1592, he wrote a response to a Jesuit’s anti-government work, titled Certain Observations Made upon a Libel, comparing England to democratic Athens and opposing Spain. Bacon was elected to Parliament for Middlesex in 1593 when Queen Elizabeth called Parliament to investigate a Catholic plot against her. His opposition to a bill that would raise taxes quickly angered the Queen. Critics said he was trying to gain popularity, and for a time, the Court ignored him.

In 1594, when the position of Attorney General became available, Lord Essex could not help Bacon get the job, which went to Sir Edward Coke. Bacon also failed to get the lesser position of Solicitor General in 1595, as the Queen chose Sir Thomas Fleming instead. To comfort Bacon, Essex gave him a property in Tw

Philosophy and works

Francis Bacon's ideas are shown in the many different writings he created, which can be grouped into three main categories:

Some of the most well-known works by Bacon are:

Influence and legacy

Francis Bacon’s important work, Novum Organum, had a major impact on scholars in the 17th century, especially Thomas Browne. In his book Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646–72), Browne often used methods similar to Bacon’s in his scientific studies. This book explains the basics of the scientific method, which involves observing and drawing conclusions from evidence. Robert Hooke was also greatly influenced by Bacon. He used Bacon’s language and ideas in his book Micrographia.

According to Bacon, all learning and knowledge come from inductive reasoning. He believed that by using data from experiments, people could fully understand any concept through induction. Induction can be thought of as "reasoning from evidence," while deduction is "reasoning from a starting idea or hypothesis." To reach an inductive conclusion, it is important to observe specific details of nature. Once these details are collected, they are sorted into a clear system to help people understand them. Experiments are essential for discovering truths about nature. When an experiment happens, the data is used to form a result and conclusion. This process does not begin with a hypothesis. Instead, inductive reasoning starts with data, not a pre-existing idea. By studying these details, people can understand nature better and form an inductive conclusion. Bacon wrote, "There are only two ways to discover truth. One starts with general rules and works down to specific ideas. The other begins with specific observations and gradually moves to general rules. This second method is the true way, though it has not been widely used."

Bacon explained that understanding nature requires careful study of its details. He saw nature as a complex system that needs careful observation to reveal its secrets. He described how taking a specific example from nature and expanding it into a general rule helps people learn more about nature. Once people understand these details, they can gain knowledge and discover new information about the natural world. Bacon believed that inductive methods could provide reliable answers about the laws of the universe. He concluded that all learning and knowledge must come from inductive reasoning.

During the Restoration period, Bacon was often seen as a guide for the Royal Society, which was founded in 1660 under King Charles II. In the 18th-century French Enlightenment, Bacon’s practical approach to science became more influential than the ideas of his contemporary, Descartes. This approach was linked to criticism of the old French government. In 1733, Voltaire introduced Bacon to the French public as the "father" of the scientific method, a title that became widely accepted by the 1750s. In the 19th century, William Whewell and others revived and expanded Bacon’s focus on induction. Bacon is often called the "Father of Experimental Philosophy."

He also wrote a long work on medicine titled History of Life and Death, which included natural and experimental observations aimed at extending life.

One of Bacon’s biographers, William Hepworth Dixon, said, "Bacon’s influence on the modern world is so great that every person who rides in a train, sends a telegram, uses a steam plough, sits in an easy chair, crosses the Atlantic, enjoys a good dinner, or has a painless surgery owes him something."

In 1902, Hugo von Hofmannsthal published a fictional letter, The Lord Chandos Letter, written to Bacon in 1603, about a writer struggling with language.

Bacon played a major role in establishing British colonies in North America, especially in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Newfoundland. His report on "The Virginia Colony" was submitted in 1609. In 1610, Bacon and his associates received a royal charter to form a company for colonizing Newfoundland and sent John Guy to start a colony there. Thomas Jefferson, the third U.S. president, said, "Bacon, Locke, and Newton are the three greatest men who ever lived, and they laid the foundation for the physical and moral sciences."

In 1910, Newfoundland issued a postage stamp to honor Bacon’s role in colonizing the area. The stamp described him as "the guiding spirit in Colonization Schemes in 1610." Some scholars believe Bacon helped draft two government charters for the Virginia Colony in 1609 and 1612. William Hepworth Dixon suggested Bacon’s name should be included in the list of Founders of the United States.

Although few of Bacon’s legal ideas were used during his lifetime, his influence on law was noted by New Scientist in 1961. It said his work affected the creation of the Napoleonic Code and the legal reforms of 19th-century British Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel. William Hepworth Dixon called the Napoleonic Code "the sole embodiment of Bacon’s thought," noting that Bacon’s legal work had more success abroad than in England.

Harvey Wheeler wrote that Bacon helped shape the modern common law system by combining observation and inductive reasoning. By the late 17th century, Sir Matthew Hale explained how modern common law worked and credited Bacon with discovering unwritten laws from evidence. Paul H. Kocher said some jurists consider Bacon the "father of modern Jurisprudence."

A statue of Bacon stands in Gray’s Inn, South Square, London, where he studied law and became Treasurer of the Inn in 1608.

Recent studies on Bacon’s legal work have focused on his support for using torture as a legal tool. Bacon himself was involved in five torture cases as a commissioner during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. In a letter to King James I in 1613, Bacon discussed the use of torture in English law.

Historical debates

The Baconian hypothesis about Shakespeare's authorship, first suggested in the mid-1800s, argues that Francis Bacon wrote some or all of the plays usually credited to William Shakespeare.

Francis Bacon often met with men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics, philosophy, and to test theatrical scenes he admitted writing. His possible links to the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have been widely discussed in many books. However, some scholars, like Daphne du Maurier in her biography of Bacon, say there is no strong evidence to support claims of his involvement with the Rosicrucians. Frances Yates does not claim Bacon was a Rosicrucian, but she provides evidence that he was part of secret intellectual groups of his time. She explains that Bacon’s movement to advance learning was connected to the German Rosicrucian movement, and his work New Atlantis describes a land ruled by Rosicrucians. He believed his efforts to improve learning aligned with Rosicrucian goals.

Yates notes that Bacon’s ideas shared similarities with the Rosicrucian Manifestos and his plan for a "Great Instauration." Both aimed to reform "divine and human understanding" and sought to return humanity to a "state before the Fall."

Another connection is the similarity between Bacon’s New Atlantis and Johann Valentin Andreae’s Description of the Republic of Christianopolis (1619). Andreae’s work describes an island where Christian beliefs and science guide society, with spiritual growth and intellectual work as top priorities. The island also features advanced technology, with industries organized to meet people’s needs, which mirrors Bacon’s scientific methods.

While rejecting conspiracy theories about Bacon and denying that he identified as a Rosicrucian, historian Paolo Rossi argues that occult ideas influenced Bacon’s scientific and religious writings. Rossi says Bacon studied alchemical texts and that his views on science were shaped by Renaissance ideas about magic and nature. He also notes that Bacon searched for hidden meanings in myths, as seen in The Wisdom of the Ancients, a practice similar to earlier occultist traditions. However, Rossi claims Bacon later rejected the philosophical roots of occultism as he developed modern science.

Rossi’s ideas were expanded by Jason Josephson-Storm in The Myth of Disenchantment. Josephson-Storm also rejects conspiracy theories and does not claim Bacon was a Rosicrucian. He argues that Bacon’s rejection of magic was an effort to remove Catholic, demonic, and esoteric ideas from magic, making it a field similar to science. He also suggests Bacon used magical ideas when creating his scientific methods. Josephson-Storm notes that Bacon viewed nature as a living entity filled with spirits and that his ideas about controlling nature relied on his spiritual beliefs.

Bacon’s influence can also be seen in the works of religious and spiritual writers and groups that have used his writings in their own beliefs.