A fairy ring, also called a fairy circle, elf circle, elf ring, or pixie ring, is a naturally formed ring or arc of mushrooms. These rings are often found in forests, but they can also appear in grasslands or open fields. Fairy rings can be seen by the mushrooms growing in rings or arcs, as well as by areas of dead grass or rings of dark green grass. Underneath the surface, a network of fungi called mycelium is present. These rings can grow larger than 10 meters (33 feet) in diameter. Over time, the fungus spreads underground, and the rings become stable.
Fairy rings are widely mentioned in stories and myths around the world, especially in Western Europe. Some people believe they are dangerous places connected to witches or the Devil, while others see them as signs of good luck.
Genesis
The mycelium of a fungus in the ground takes in nutrients by releasing enzymes from the ends of the hyphae (tiny, thread-like structures that form the mycelium). These enzymes break down large molecules in the soil into smaller molecules, which are then absorbed through the hyphae walls near their growing ends. As the mycelium spreads outward from the center, the nutrients in the center are used up, causing the center to die. This creates a ring of living tissue, from which a fairy ring develops.
There are two theories about how fairy rings form. One suggests that a fairy ring begins when a spore from the sporocarp lands in the soil. The presence of the underground fungus can also cause the grass above to wilt, change color, or grow unevenly. The second theory, based on research by Japanese scientists studying the Tricholoma matsutake species, suggests that fairy rings may form when neighboring oval genets of these mushrooms connect. If these groups form an arc or a ring, they continue to grow around the center of the structure.
Necrotic or rapid growth zones
Fairy rings can form a necrotic zone, which is an area where grass or other plants have died or turned brown. During dry years, these zones happen because mycelium, the thread-like parts of fungi, cover the roots of grasses and other plants in meadows. Over time, these mycelium are removed from the soil by living things, revealing a visible area on the soil's surface. Fairy rings can take many shapes, including circles, double arcs, sickle-shaped arcs, and other complex forms. Some fungi use up nutrients like nitrogen in the soil, making plants inside the ring grow poorly and change color. Certain fungi also release chemicals similar to plant growth hormones called gibberellins, which can cause nearby plants to grow quickly and become lush.
Long-term studies of fairy rings on Shillingstone Hill in Dorset, England, showed that the process depends on rabbits being present. In areas with chalky soil in Wiltshire and Dorset, fairy rings used to form in meadows. Rabbits cut grass short and leave behind droppings rich in nitrogen. Mushrooms need more nitrogen than grass does. A fairy ring can begin with just a few spores, from which mycelium grows. Mushrooms only appear later when enough mycelium has formed to support them. New fungi grow outward because older fungi have used up the nitrogen nearby. Rabbits keep cutting the grass but do not eat the fungi, letting the fungi grow above the grass. When a circle of mushrooms reaches about 6 meters (20 feet) in diameter, rabbit droppings near the center of the circle add nitrogen back into the soil, allowing a new ring to form inside the first.
Soil tests from a fairy ring made by a wood blewit fungus (Clitocybe nuda) under Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) in southeast Sweden found fourteen compounds with certain chemical elements. Three of these compounds had bromine, and the others had chlorine. It is not known if these were chemicals made by the fungi or pollutants. Brominated compounds have not been found as natural products from fungi on land.
Types
There are two commonly known types of fairy ring fungus. Those found in forests are called tethered because they grow from fungi that form a partnership with trees. Fairy rings in meadows are called free because they do not connect to other living things. These mushrooms break down dead material. The impact on grass depends on the type of fungus present. When Calvatia cyathiformis grows in an area, grass grows more thickly. However, Leucopaxillus giganteus causes grass to dry up and die.
Species involved
Around 60 types of mushrooms can grow in the fairy ring pattern. The most well-known is the edible mushroom called the Scotch bonnet (Marasmius oreades), also known as the fairy ring champignon.
One of the largest fairy rings ever discovered is near Belfort in northeastern France. This ring was formed by the mushroom Infundibulicybe geotropa and is believed to have a radius of about 300 meters (980 feet) and to be more than 700 years old. In southern England, on the South Downs, the mushroom Calocybe gambosa has created large fairy rings that are also several hundred years old.
Cultural references
Fairy rings are surrounded by many stories and beliefs. In European languages, their names often suggest magical or supernatural origins. For example, in French, they are called "ronds de sorcières" (witches' circles), and in German, "Hexenringe" (witches' rings). In Germany, fairy rings were thought to be places where witches danced on Walpurgis Night. In the Netherlands, people believed the circles showed where the Devil placed his milk churn. In Tyrol, folklore said fairy rings came from the fiery tails of flying dragons. Once a dragon made a circle, only toadstools could grow there for seven years. European traditions often warned people not to enter fairy rings. In France, it was said that giant, bug-eyed toads guarded the circles and cursed those who entered. In other parts of Europe, entering a fairy ring was believed to cause someone to lose an eye. In the Philippines, fairy rings are linked to small spirits.
In Western Europe, including England, Scandinavia, and Celtic regions, fairy rings were thought to form from elves or fairies dancing. This idea dates back to the medieval period. The Middle English word "elferingewort" (elf-ring) meant a ring of daisies caused by elves' dancing. In 1628, Swedish writer Olaus Magnus wrote that fairy rings were burned into the ground by elves dancing. British folklorist Thomas Keightley noted that in 19th-century Scandinavia, people still believed fairy rings (called "elfdans") came from elves dancing. Keightley warned that entering an elfdans might let someone see elves, but it could also trap them in illusions.
In Britain and Ireland, fairy rings were often linked to fairies dancing. In 19th-century Wales, the rings were called "cylch y Tylwyth Teg" (circle of the Fair Folk), and fairies were described as dancing in groups. In Scotland and Wales during the late 20th century, stories about fairy rings were still common. Some Welsh people claimed to have joined fairy dances. Victorian writers connected fairies and witches, as both were believed to dance in circles. These dances were often linked to moonlit nights, with the rings visible only the next morning. Local traditions added details. In early 20th-century Ireland, fairies were said to dance around hawthorn trees, making fairy rings center on them. In Scotland, someone claimed fairies sat on mushrooms and used them as tables. A Welsh woman said fairies used mushrooms as umbrellas. Olaus Magnus wrote that the brightness of fairy rings came from Puck, not the fairies themselves. In Devon, a legend said a black hen and chickens sometimes appeared at dusk in a large fairy ring on Dartmoor. A 1960s Welsh and Manx tradition said fairy rings formed over underground fairy villages. These beliefs were tied to specific places, like "The Pixies' Church" in Dartmoor, surrounded by a fairy ring, and a stone circle on Cader Idris in Wales, believed to be a fairy dance spot.
Many folk beliefs say fairy rings are dangerous and should be avoided. American writer Wirt Sikes linked stories about people trespassing on fairy rings to the tale of Psyche and Eros, where Psyche was punished for seeing her lover. Superstition warned that entering fairy rings could anger fairies and bring curses. In an Irish story, a farmer built a barn on a fairy ring despite warnings. He was struck senseless, and a "fairy doctor" broke the curse. The farmer later dreamed he must destroy the barn. Even collecting dew from fairy ring plants was said to bring bad luck. Destroying a fairy ring was considered unlucky, as it would grow back.
A traditional Scottish rhyme warned of the dangers of fairy rings:
"He who tills the fairies' green / No luck again shall have. / And he who spills the fairies' ring / Betide him want and woe. / For weirdless days and weary nights / Are his till his dying day. / But he who goes by the fairy ring, / No woe nor pine shall see. / And he who cleans the fairy ring / An easy death shall die."
Many legends focus on people entering fairy rings and the consequences. One belief said stepping into an empty fairy ring would cause someone to die young. A 20th-century Somerset tradition called fairy rings "galley-traps," claiming a murderer or thief who entered would be hanged. Often, those who entered fairy rings became invisible to others or could not leave. Fairies might force people to dance until they were exhausted, sick, or died. In Welsh tales, fairies tried to lure mortals into dancing. A 19th-century story from Wales described a shepherd seeing tiny fairies dancing in a ring. He joined them, hearing beautiful music, but was trapped. Entering fairy rings on May Eve or Halloween was especially dangerous. One story said a shepherd was captured by fairies and even married one. In Scottish tales, fairy rings were sometimes replaced by caves or old mills.
Escaping a fairy ring often required help. In early 20th-century Wales, people scattered wild marjoram and thyme to confuse fairies. Others used iron to free victims. In some stories, someone had to pull the trapped person out. A farmer in Llangollen tied a rope around himself and had four men pull him from a fairy ring to save his daughter. Other methods used Christian symbols, like a rowan tree stick (believed to be from the cross of Jesus) or saying "what, in Heaven's name," as in a 19th-century tale from Carmarthenshire.