The Great Sphinx of Giza is a large limestone statue of a sphinx, a mythical creature with a human head and a lion’s body. It was carved from solid limestone rock found in the Mokattam Formation, which is very old and formed during the Eocene period. The statue faces east on the Giza Plateau, located on the west side of the Nile River in Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest known large sculpture in Egypt and is part of the Memphite Necropolis, an ancient burial area. The Sphinx is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site, meaning it is recognized for its cultural importance.
Archaeological findings suggest the Sphinx was built during the Old Kingdom era, around the time of King Khufu (about 2590–2566 BC) or his son, King Khafre (about 2558–2532 BC). Experts believe the face of the Sphinx may resemble King Khufu or one of his sons, Khafre or Djedefre. However, there is no agreement among scholars about whose face was used.
The Sphinx has been repaired many times. The most recent work included replacing parts of the stone base. The statue is 73 meters (240 feet) long from the front paw to the end of the tail, 20 meters (66 feet) tall from the base to the top of the head, and 19 meters (62 feet) wide at the back.
The reason the Sphinx’s nose is missing is unknown. Studies of the face show signs of it being intentionally broken using tools like rods or chisels. A common story claims the nose was destroyed by cannon fire from Napoleon’s soldiers in 1798, but this is not true.
Names
The original name that the people of the Old Kingdom used for the Sphinx is not known. This is because the Sphinx's temple, enclosure, and possibly the Sphinx itself were not completed at the time, and little is known about the statue's cultural background. During the New Kingdom, the Sphinx was worshipped as the solar deity Hor-em-akhet, which means "Horus of the Horizon" in English. The 14th century BC pharaoh Thutmose IV specifically called it by this name in his Dream Stele.
The commonly used name "Sphinx" was given to the statue during classical antiquity, about 2,000 years after it was built. This name comes from a Greek mythological creature with the head of a woman, a falcon, a cat, or a sheep, and the body of a lion with the wings of an eagle. However, the Great Sphinx has a human head and no wings, like most Egyptian sphinxes. The English word "sphinx" is derived from the ancient Greek word Σφίγξ, which may come from the verb σφίγγω, meaning "to squeeze." This refers to the Greek myth of a sphinx who would strangle people who could not answer her riddle.
Medieval Arab writers, such as al-Maqrīzī, referred to the Sphinx using Arabized Coptic names like Belhib, Balhubah, or Belhawiyya. These names are based on the Ancient Egyptian name Pehor or Pehoron, which was linked to the Canaanite god Hauron. The Sphinx was also identified with the name Ablehon in a drawing by François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz. In medieval Egyptian Arabic, the Sphinx was called Abū il-Hawl, meaning "father of terror," which may be a later interpretation of the name of the god Ḥwr. In other sources, the medieval Egyptian Arabic name is recorded as Abul-Hun.
History
Archaeological evidence suggests the Great Sphinx was built between 2600 and 2500 BC for King Khufu, who built the Great Pyramid of Giza, or his son Khafre, who built the second pyramid at Giza. The Sphinx is a large stone carved from the bedrock of the plateau, which also provided stone for the pyramids and other monuments nearby. Egyptian geologist Farouk El-Baz proposed that the head of the Sphinx may have been carved first from a natural rock formation called a yardang, which wind shapes into animal-like forms. El-Baz also suggested the "moat" or "ditch" around the Sphinx was carved later to make space for the full body. Stones removed from the Sphinx’s body were used to build a temple nearby, but neither the temple nor the surrounding area were completed. Few artifacts from the Old Kingdom suggest the Sphinx was not worshipped as a god at that time.
In 1949, Selim Hassan noted that while Khafre may have built the Sphinx, no writings from his time directly link him to it. Therefore, the evidence remains indirect until more discoveries are made. To build the temple, part of the wall of Khafre’s Valley Temple had to be removed, meaning the temple and pyramid were built before the Sphinx. The position of the Sphinx’s enclosure also suggests the path connecting Khafre’s pyramid and temple existed before the Sphinx was made. The base of the Sphinx’s temple also shows it was not built before the Valley Temple.
During the First Intermediate Period, the Giza Necropolis was abandoned, and sand covered the Sphinx up to its shoulders. The first recorded attempt to dig it out happened around 1400 BC by Thutmose IV, who placed a shrine with a stone called the Dream Stele near the Sphinx’s paws. The stele’s text, now damaged, mentions the Sphinx speaking to Thutmose IV and granting him power. The text also refers to Khafre, though some parts are missing. Egyptologist Thomas Young later added a symbol to the damaged text to complete Khafre’s name, but later damage destroyed those lines. Later, Ramesses II may have also dug near the Sphinx.
In the New Kingdom, the Sphinx became linked to the sun god Hor-em-akhet. Pharaoh Amenhotep II built a temple near the Sphinx nearly 1,000 years after its creation and dedicated it to Hor-em-akhet. During Graeco-Roman times, Giza became a tourist spot, and the Sphinx was cleared of sand in the first century AD for Emperor Nero and a local governor. A wide stairway was built to reach the Sphinx, but it was later removed. Pliny the Elder described the Sphinx’s face as red and gave its size. A stone from 166 AD mentions repairing the Sphinx’s surrounding walls. The last Roman emperor linked to the Sphinx was Septimius Severus around 200 AD. After the fall of Rome, the Sphinx was buried again by sand.
Some non-Egyptians saw the Sphinx as a god called Hauron. The Sphinx remained important in medieval times, with some believing it was the resting place of Hermes Trismegistus. Arab writers described it as a protective symbol tied to the Nile’s flooding. Over time, many people wrote about the Sphinx, often mixing science, romance, and mystery. John Stoddard described the Sphinx’s ancient age and its damaged face, calling it a silent witness to history.
From the 16th to 19th centuries, European visitors often described the Sphinx as having a woman’s face, neck, and chest. Early drawings of the Sphinx were based on sketches or descriptions, and some showed it as a statue made by a goddess named Isis. Others depicted it as a monster with curly hair. Athanasius Kircher, who never visited Egypt, drew the Sphinx as a Roman statue.
Degradation and violation
The nummulitic limestone in the area has layers that resist erosion differently. Wind and windblown sand cause uneven wear on the Sphinx. The lowest part, including the legs, is solid rock. The middle part of the Sphinx has eroded more because its limestone is softer than the surrounding rock. The head was carved from harder limestone, which resists erosion better. Treasure hunters and tomb robbers have dug many dead-end tunnels inside and below the Sphinx.
The missing nose of the Sphinx has led to many myths. One widely believed story claims Napoleon’s army destroyed it with cannonballs, but this is false. Drawings from 1737 show the nose already missing, over 60 years before Napoleon arrived. The Sphinx’s face has marks from tools like rods or chisels, one on the bridge of the nose and another below the nostril. The nose was likely pried off, and the stone crumbled as it fell or was later damaged.
Some 10th-century Arab writers said the damaged nose resulted from attacks that destroyed religious symbols. Others blamed the Mamluks in the 14th century. Ibn Qadi Shuhba wrote that Muhammad ibn Sadiq ibn al-Muhammad al-Tibrizi al-Masri destroyed the Sphinxes of "Qanatir al-Siba."
In the early 15th century, historian al-Maqrīzī said the nose was removed by Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim in 1378. Sa'im al-Dahr saw peasants offering sacrifices to the Sphinx for better harvests and defaced it as an act of iconoclasm. People in the area believed the sand covering the Giza Plateau was punishment for this act. Al-Minufi wrote that the Alexandrian Crusade in 1365 was divine retribution for Sa'im al-Dahr’s actions.
Sketches and writings from before Napoleon’s time show the missing nose. The damage is also mentioned by 15th-century historian al-Maqrīzī.
The Sphinx may have had a ceremonial beard added after its original construction. If the beard had been part of the original design, Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev said it would have damaged the chin if it had fallen. Red pigment residue is visible on the Sphinx’s face, and traces of yellow and blue pigment are found elsewhere. Mark Lehner suggested the monument was once decorated with bright colors.
Holes and tunnels
Between 1565 and 1566, Johann Helffrich visited the Sphinx. He described a priest entering the head of the Sphinx. When the priest spoke, it sounded like the Sphinx was speaking. Many stone carvings from the New Kingdom show the Sphinx wearing a crown. If such a crown existed, the hole in the Sphinx’s head might have been used to attach it. In 1926, Émile Baraize sealed the hole with a metal hatch.
In 1837, Howard Vyse directed John Shae Perring to drill a tunnel behind the Sphinx’s head. The drilling tools became stuck at a depth of 27 feet (8.2 meters). Attempts to free the tools caused more damage. The hole was cleaned in 1978. Among the debris found was a piece of the Sphinx’s nemes headdress.
A large natural crack in the bedrock cuts through the Sphinx’s waist. Auguste Mariette first explored this crack in 1853. At the top of the Sphinx’s back, the crack is up to 2 meters (6.6 feet) wide. In 1926, Baraize sealed the sides of the crack with iron bars, limestone, and cement. He also added an iron trapdoor at the top. The sides of the crack may have been shaped by humans, but the bottom remains uneven bedrock, about 1 meter (3.3 feet) above the ground. A narrow crack continues deeper into the rock.
In 1926, Baraize oversaw the removal of sand from the Sphinx. This revealed a tunnel opening at floor level near the Sphinx’s rump. The tunnel was later covered with masonry and forgotten. More than 50 years later, three men who had helped clear the sand recalled the tunnel’s existence. This led to its rediscovery and excavation in 1980.
The tunnel has two sections: one upper and one lower. These sections are angled about 90 degrees from each other. It is possible the tunnel was carved from the top down, starting high on the rump. The current entrance at floor level may have been made later. In his diary from February 27–28, 1837, Vyse wrote about drilling near the Sphinx’s tail. This suggests he created the tunnel, as no other tunnel has been found in this area. Another possibility is that the tunnel is ancient, perhaps an unfinished tomb or exploratory shaft.
A 1925 photograph shows a man standing below floor level in a niche inside the Sphinx’s body. This area was sealed during restorations between 1925 and 1926.
A hole may have existed at floor level in the large masonry box on the Sphinx’s south side.
The space behind the Dream Stele, between the Sphinx’s paws, was covered with an iron beam and cement. This cover included an iron trapdoor.
At the ledge of the Sphinx’s enclosure, a square shaft is located near the northern hind paw. This shaft was cleared in 1978 by Hawass. It measures 1.42 by 1.06 meters (4.7 by 3.5 feet) and is about 2 meters (6.6 feet) deep. Lehner believes the shaft is an unfinished tomb. He named it the "Keyhole Shaft" because of carvings above it that resemble the bottom of a traditional keyhole, upside down.
Pseudohistory
Many theories have been proposed to explain the Sphinx's origins and identity. However, these theories do not have enough proof and are sometimes contradicted by evidence. Because of this, they are classified as pseudohistory and pseudoarchaeology.
Before the early 1900s, some people believed the Sphinx's face had features similar to those of people from Africa. This idea was part of old, now-discredited beliefs about race.