Petra (Arabic: ٱلْبَتْراء, romanized: Al-Batrāʾ; Ancient Greek: Πέτρα, meaning "Rock") was originally called Raqmu by its people (Nabataean Aramaic: 𐢛𐢚𐢒 or 𐢛𐢚𐢓𐢈, *Raqēmō). It is an ancient city and archaeological site in southern Jordan. Petra is famous for its rock-cut buildings and water systems. It is also called the "Rose City" because the sandstone used to build it has a pinkish color. Petra is one of the New 7 Wonders of the World and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

People have lived near Petra since around 7000 BC. The Nabataeans, a nomadic Arab group, settled there in the 4th century BC. Petra became the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom in the 2nd century BC. The Nabataeans used Petra’s location near trade routes to make it a major trading center, which brought them wealth. They survived in the desert by collecting rainwater and farming in the dry land.

Petra grew in importance during the 1st century AD. A famous building called Al-Khazneh, possibly the tomb of Nabataean king Aretas IV, was built during this time. Petra’s population reached about 20,000 people. In 106 CE, the Romans took control of Nabataea and renamed the region Arabia Petraea. Petra’s importance decreased when sea trade routes became more common. An earthquake in 363 AD damaged many buildings. During the Byzantine era, some Christian churches were built, but Petra continued to decline. By the early Islamic era, the city was mostly abandoned, except for a few nomads. Petra was unknown to the Western world until 1812, when Swiss traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt rediscovered it.

UNESCO has called Petra "one of the most precious cultural properties of human heritage." Petra is a symbol of Jordan and the country’s most visited tourist attraction. Nearly one million tourists visit Petra each year.

History

By 7000 BC, some of the earliest recorded farmers lived in Beidha, an ancient settlement near Petra. Petra is mentioned in Egyptian records and letters from the Amarna period as Pel, Sela, or Seir.

The Iron Age lasted from 1200 BC to 600 BC. During this time, the Petra area was home to the Edomites. The shape of the mountains near Petra helped create a water storage area for the Edomites. This made Petra a place where merchants stopped to trade. Items traded included wine, olive oil, and wood.

At first, the Edomites lived alongside nomadic groups, but the nomads eventually left. The Edomites stayed and influenced Petra before the Nabataeans arrived. Some stories say 10,000 men were pushed off a mountain called Umm el-Biyara, but scholars debate the truth of this claim.

An Edomite site found at the top of Umm el-Biyara mountain was built no earlier than the seventh century BC.

The Nabataeans were one of many nomadic tribes from the Arabian Desert who moved with their herds to find water and pasture. Though they were connected to Aramaic culture, many modern scholars say they were not Aramean. Evidence from archaeology, religion, and language shows they were a northern Arabian tribe. Their name for Petra was Raqēmō, written in inscriptions as rqmw or rqm.

The Jewish historian Josephus wrote that the Midianites lived in the area during the time of Moses and were ruled by five kings, one named Rekem. He noted that Petra, called Rekeme by Arabs, was the most important city in the region. The word "Rekeme" might come from the Nabataean language, meaning "to mark" or "to decorate," possibly referring to Petra’s carved rock structures. In 1964, workers found ancient inscriptions in Nabataean script near Petra, including one for a man named Petraios who lived in Raqmu (Rekem) and was buried in Garshu (Jerash).

An old idea suggested Petra might be the same as a place called "Sela" in the Hebrew Bible. Some sources say the city’s name might be unknown if it was not Sela, but "Sela" simply means "rock" in Hebrew and may not refer to a city. Petra may have been part of the Edomite nation.

A Greek writer named Diodorus Siculus described the Nabataeans as a nomadic group who believed wealth could be taken by those in power. He also wrote about an expedition by Antigonus against the Nabataeans in 312 BC, though the Greek word "petra" (rock) likely described a natural fortress, not a city name.

In 106 AD, the Roman Empire absorbed the area ruled by Petra into a region called Arabia Petraea. Petra’s native rulers ended, but the city continued to grow under Roman rule. Around this time, the Petra Roman Road was built. A century later, during the reign of Emperor Severus Alexander, Petra reached its peak. However, coin production stopped, and no more grand tombs were built, possibly due to a sudden disaster like an invasion by the Sasanian Empire.

As Palmyra became more important for trade, Petra’s influence declined. Petra remained a religious center, and another Roman road was built there. A writer named Epiphanius of Salamis noted that a festival honoring the goddess Khaabou and her son Dushara was held in Petra on December 25. Dushara and al-Uzza were major gods in Petra, along with other deities like Allat and Manat.

Between 111 and 114 AD, Emperor Trajan built the Via Traiana Nova, a road connecting the Syrian border to the Red Sea through Petra. This route revived trade between Arabia, Syria, and the Mediterranean. In 125 AD, an administrator of Emperor Hadrian left marks in Petra, found in documents from the Dead Sea. In 130 AD, Hadrian visited Petra and renamed it Hadriānī Petra Metropolis, a name found on his coins. His visit did not boost Petra’s development as it did in Jerash. A governor named Sextius Florentinus built a large tomb near the al-Hubta (King’s Wall) tombs, which were reserved for the royal family during the Nabataean period.

Roman emperors continued to value Petra in the 3rd century. An inscription to a god named Liber Pater, honored by Emperor Septimius Severus, was found near the Qasr al-Bint temple. Nabataean tombs contained coins with Severus’s portrait and pottery from his reign. Emperor Elagabalus made Petra a Roman colony in the late 3rd century. Petra and nearby areas were added to the province of Palaestina Salutaris. The Madaba Map, created during Emperor Justinian I’s reign, does not show Petra.

Petra declined under Roman rule because trade routes shifted to the sea. In 363 AD, an earthquake damaged many buildings and destroyed Petra’s water system. Petra became the capital of the Byzantine province of Palaestina III, and many Byzantine churches were built there. In one church, 140 papyri were found, showing the city was still active in the 6th century. The Byzantine Church is an example of important architecture from that time.

The last mention of Petra as a Byzantine city comes from a text written in the early 7th century by John Moschus. Petra was no longer a major religious center by 687 AD, when its bishopric was moved to Areopolis. Petra is not mentioned in early Islamic records.

In the 12th century, Crusaders built castles like Alwaeira Castle near Petra but left after a while. Petra’s location was forgotten until the 19th century. Two other Crusader castles were built near Petra: one at al-Wu'ayra, north of Wadi Musa, and another on the summit of el-Habis.

Layout

Petra is next to the mountain of Jabal Al-Madbah, in a basin that is surrounded by mountains forming the eastern side of the Arabah valley, which stretches from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba.

Excavations show that the Nabataeans’ ability to control water was key to Petra’s growth. The city became an artificial oasis despite flash floods in the area. Archaeological evidence proves the Nabataeans used dams, cisterns, and water channels to manage these floods. These methods helped store water during droughts and allowed the city to thrive by selling water and goods.

In ancient times, Petra could be reached from the south through a path across the plain of Petra, near Jabal Haroun, the location of the Tomb of Aaron, believed to be the burial place of Aaron, the brother of Moses. Another possible route was from a high plateau to the north. Today, most visitors arrive from the east. The dramatic eastern entrance leads down through a narrow, dark gorge called the Siq, a natural geological feature formed by a deep split in sandstone rocks. The Siq acts as a waterway flowing into Wadi Musa.

Petra is most famous for its Hellenistic architecture. The facades of tombs in Petra often reflect Hellenistic styles, showing the influence of Greek culture through trade with many different cultures. Most tombs have small niches carved into the stone for burials.

A prime example of Hellenistic style is the Treasury, which is 24 meters wide and 37 meters tall. Its design resembles architecture from Alexandria. The Treasury’s facade includes a broken pediment with a central tholos and two obelisks that appear to rise from the rock. Near the bottom, two Greek gods, Castor and Pollux, are carved to protect travelers. Near the top, two victories stand on either side of a female figure believed to be Isis-Tyche, a combination of the Egyptian goddess Isis and the Greek goddess Tyche, both associated with good fortune.

Another example of Hellenistic architecture is the Monastery, which is 45 meters tall and 50 meters wide. It is Petra’s largest monument, carved into the rock face. Like the Treasury, the Monastery’s facade has a broken pediment and a central tholos. It blends Nabataean elements with Greek influences. The only light inside the Monastery comes from its entrance, which is 8 meters high. A large, flat area outside the Monastery was used for worship, later serving as a Christian site during the Byzantine period.

At the end of the Siq stands the Treasury, Petra’s most elaborate ruin. The structure is well-preserved but has hundreds of bullet holes from local Bedouin tribes who hoped to find hidden riches.

Near the Treasury, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr, is a massive theatre. It was built to offer views of many tombs. The theatre was carved into the hillside and into several tombs during construction. Rectangular gaps in the seating remain visible. Rose-colored mountain walls surround the theatre on three sides, divided by deep cracks and lined with rock formations shaped like towers. The theatre could hold about 8,500 people. Audiences attended poetry readings, dramas, and gladiator fights, though gladiator fights were dangerous due to the high death rate. The theatre suffered damage from the 363 Galilee earthquake.

The Petra Pool and Garden Complex includes a large swimming pool, an island-pavilion, and a complex water system. Originally thought to be a market, it is now understood to be a garden.

Near the Petra Pool and Garden Complex is the Colonnaded Street, one of Petra’s few man-made structures. It once held a semi-circular nymphaeum, now ruined by flash floods, and was home to Petra’s only tree, a symbol of peace. After the Romans took control, the street was narrowed, and 72 columns were added to each side.

The High Place of Sacrifice is located on Jebel Madbah Mountain. It is about an 800-step hike from Petra’s theatre. Common sacrifices there included libation and animal offerings, such as a goat, in honor of the Prophet Aaron’s tomb, a sacred site for Muslims. Other rituals included burning frankincense.

The Royal Tombs of Petra follow the Nabataean version of Hellenistic architecture, though their facades have worn over time. The Palace Tomb is believed to be the tomb of Petra’s kings. The Corinthian Tomb, next to the Palace Tomb, shares the same Hellenistic style as the Treasury. The Silk Tomb and Urn Tomb are other Royal Tombs, with the Urn Tomb having a large yard and being turned into a church in 446 AD.

In 2016, archaeologists discovered a large, unknown structure using satellite imagery and drones. The structure dates back to around 150 BC, during the Nabataeans’ public building program. It is located outside the city, at the foot of Jabal an-Nmayr, facing east. The structure includes a massive platform with a monumental staircase and a smaller building on top. It is the second-largest structure in Petra and may have had a ceremonial purpose, though its exact use remains unclear.

Geostrategic importance

Pliny the Elder and other writers say Petra was the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom and the center of their trade routes. Petra is surrounded by tall rocks and has a stream that flows all year. This made Petra not only a strong fortress but also a key place for trade. It controlled main trade routes going to Gaza in the west, to Bosra and Damascus in the north, to Aqaba and Leuce Come on the Red Sea, and across the desert to the Persian Gulf.

Religious importance

The Nabataeans worshipped Arab gods and goddesses before the rise of Islam, as well as some of their kings who were later honored as deities. One such king, Obodas I, was worshipped as a god after he died in 85 BC. Dushara was the main male god, and he was often shown with three female deities: Al-‘Uzzā, Allat, and Manāt. Many rock carvings in Petra depict these gods and goddesses. New evidence shows that the beliefs of the Edomites and Nabataeans were closely connected to the relationship between Earth and the Sun, as seen in the way Petra’s structures are aligned with sunrise and sunset during equinoxes and solstices.

The Monastery, Petra’s largest monument, was built in the 1st century BC. It was dedicated to Obodas I and is believed to have been a place where Obodas was honored as a god. This information is written on the ruins of the Monastery, which is the Arabic translation of "Ad Deir."

The Temple of the Winged Lions is a large temple complex built during the reign of King Aretas IV (9 BC–40 AD). It is located in Petra’s Sacred Quarter, an area at the end of Petra’s main Colonnaded Street. This area includes two major temples: the Qasr al-Bint and the Temple of the Winged Lions, which is on the northern side of Wadi Musa.

Christianity arrived in Petra during the 4th century AD, about 500 years after Petra became a trade center. The city gradually converted to Christianity during the 4th century and possibly into the early 5th century AD. This began in 330 AD when Emperor Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, took control of the Roman Empire. With his co-ruler Licinius, he issued a decree that allowed Christians to practice their faith freely. A bishop named Asterius is mentioned by Athanasius as the bishop of Petra. At least one tomb, now called the "Urn Tomb," was used as a church. An inscription in red paint records its consecration "in the time of the most holy bishop Jason" (447).

After the Muslim conquest of 629–632 AD, Christianity in Petra, like much of Arabia, declined and was replaced by Islam.

Following the First Crusade, part of Transjordan, including Petra, was captured by King Baldwin I of Jerusalem. It became part of the barony of Krak, with the title Château de la Valée de Moyse or Sela. The Franks controlled Petra until 1189. Petra remains a titular see of the Catholic Church, known as the Archbishop of Petra.

According to tradition, Petra is the place where Moses struck a rock with his staff, causing water to flow, and where his brother Aaron is buried on Mount Hor, known in Arabic as Jabal Haroun. This tradition dates back to at least the time of Josephus. A memorial church built in the 5th century near the mountain peak became the center of a monastery visited by pilgrims. A document from Petra’s papyri, dated to 573, refers to it as "the House of … High Priest Aaron." Wadi Musa, or the "Wadi of Moses," is the Arabic name for the narrow valley where Petra is located.

A shrine honoring Moses’ sister Miriam was still shown to pilgrims in the 4th century, as recorded by Jerome. However, its exact location has not been identified since.

Climate

Petra has a climate that is partly dry. Most of the rain falls during the winter months. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification for Petra is BSk. The average temperature in Petra each year is 15.5 °C (59.9 °F). Each year, about 193 mm (7.60 in) of rainfall occurs in Petra.

Conservation

The Bedul (Petra Bedouin) were moved by the Jordanian government from their homes in Petra to Umm Sayhoun/Um Seihun in 1985. This happened before Petra was officially recognized by UNESCO. They were given new homes with basic services, including a sewage and drainage system. Among the six communities in the Petra Region, Umm Sayhoun is one of the smaller ones. The village of Wadi Musa is the largest in the area and is mostly home to the Layathnah Bedouin. It is now the closest settlement to the visitor center, the main entrance through the Siq, and the archaeological site. Umm Sayhoun provides access to a different path into Petra, called the Wadi Turkmaniyeh pedestrian route.

On December 6, 1985, Petra was named a World Heritage Site. In 2007, it was also chosen as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World in a public vote. The Petra Archaeological Park (PAP) became an independent organization responsible for managing the site in August 2007.

The Bedul are part of a Bedouin tribe. Their traditions and skills were added to UNESCO’s list of cultural heritage in 2005 and 2008.

In 2011, after planning for 11 months, the Petra Development and Tourism Region Authority, along with DesignWorkshop and JCP s.r.l., created a Strategic Master Plan. This plan guides future development in the Petra Region over the next 20 years. It aims to help the local population and Jordan as a whole by ensuring development is efficient, balanced, and sustainable. A separate plan was created for Umm Sayhoun and nearby areas.

The Strategic Plan was developed by considering the area’s needs from five different perspectives.

Petra faces many challenges, such as ancient buildings collapsing, erosion from flooding and poor drainage, damage from salt rising in the rocks, improper restoration of old structures, and too many tourists. Tourism has grown a lot since Petra became famous in 2007 during the New 7 Wonders campaign. In 2019, Petra welcomed 1.2 million visitors.

To address these issues, the Petra National Trust (PNT) was created in 1989. It has worked with local and international groups to protect and preserve Petra. UNESCO and ICOMOS recently published a book about threats to World Heritage sites. Petra was chosen as the first example in this series. A presentation titled Tourism and Archaeological Heritage Management at Petra: Driver to Development or Destruction? (2012) was the first in a series of studies on how to protect these sites.

In 2018, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) released a video showing working animals in Petra being mistreated. PETA claimed that animals are forced to carry tourists or pull carriages daily. The video showed handlers beating the animals and some injured animals, like camels with open wounds. Jordan’s authorities responded by proposing a veterinary clinic and educating animal handlers. In 2020, PETA released more videos showing that conditions for the animals had not improved. By 2021, PETA was operating what seemed to be the only veterinary clinic in the area.

Petra is a unique place where natural and cultural heritage meet. Since Johann Ludwig Burckhardt (also known as Sheikh Ibrahim) rediscovered Petra in 1812, people interested in the history and culture of the Nabataeans, such as travelers, pilgrims, artists, and scholars, have visited. However, it was not until the late 1800s that archaeologists began studying Petra’s ruins systematically. Since then, regular excavations and research on Nabataean culture have been part of Petra’s UNESCO World Heritage status. Excavations in the Petra Archaeological Park have revealed more Nabataean heritage, but these discoveries are at risk from environmental factors. Managing water is a major challenge, as it affects both the built structures and the rock-carved facades. Conservation efforts must balance the natural landscape and cultural heritage, which is a key challenge for Petra’s UNESCO status.

In recent years, several conservation projects have been launched at Petra. Early efforts focused on improving access to the Siq to protect tourists and make entry easier. Other projects have included conservation work and research. A list of these projects follows, and more may be added in the future.

Popular culture

A part of the Zionist Youth movement included hikes across the Land of Israel. These hikes sometimes involved trips into Syria and Jordan, and it is said that Meir Har-Zion started these activities. Petra was a place many people visited, but it was sometimes dangerous. In 1958, Haim Hefer wrote the lyrics for a song called HaSela haAdom ("The Red Rock"), which was about a trip that ended in death.