Rishabhanatha, also known as Rishabhadeva, Rishabha, or Ikshvaku, is the first Tirthankara (Supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the first of twenty-four teachers in the current half-cycle of time in Jain cosmology. He is called a "ford maker" because his teachings helped people cross the endless cycle of rebirth and death. According to legends, he lived millions of years ago. He was the spiritual successor of Sampratti Bhagwan, the last Tirthankara of the previous time cycle. He is also known as Ādinātha (meaning "first Lord"), Aadishvara (first Jina), Yugadideva (first deva of the yuga), Prathamarajeshwara (first God-king), and Nabheya (son of Nabhi). He is also known as Ikshvaku, the founder of the Ikshvaku dynasty. He is considered the father of human civilization. He organized human society into three groups based on occupation: kshatriya (rulers), arya (merchants and traders), and sukshma (specialized skilled workers). His son, Bharata Chakravarti, became the first kshatriya and the universal monarch after whom India was named Bhāratavarsha or Bhārat. Along with Mahavira, Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Shantinatha, Rishabhanatha is one of the five Tirthankaras most revered by Jains.
According to traditional accounts, Rishabhanatha was born to King Nabhi and Queen Marudevi in the north Indian city of Ayodhya, also called Vinita. He had two wives, Sumangalā and Sunandā. Sumangalā was the mother of his ninety-nine sons (including Bharata) and one daughter, Brahmi. Sunandā was the mother of Bahubali and Sundari. The sudden death of Nilanjana, a dancer sent by Indra, reminded him of life's impermanence and led him to seek renunciation.
After renouncing worldly life, Jain texts such as Hemachandra's Trishashti-Shalakapurusha-Charitra and Adinathcharitra by Acharya Vardhamansuri describe how Rishabhanatha traveled without food for 400 days. The day he received his first meal is celebrated by Jains as Akshaya Tritiya. In honor of Rishabhanatha, Śvetāmbara Jains observe a 400-day fast, eating food on alternating days. This practice is called Varshitap and ends on Akshaya Tritiya. He attained Moksha (liberation) on Mount Ashtapada. Accounts of his life and teachings are found in texts like Adi Purana by Jinasena and Aadesvarcharitra within Trishashti-Shalakapurusha-Charitra by Hemachandra. His iconography includes ancient idols at sites such as Kulpak Tirth and Palitana temples, as well as large statues like the Statue of Ahimsa, Bawangaja, and those at Gopachal hill. His symbols include a bull, the Nyagrodha tree, a Gomukha (bull-faced) Yaksha, and a Chakreshvari Yakshi.
Early life
Rishabhanatha is known by many names, including Adinatha, Adishwara, Yugadeva, and Nabheya. The Ādi purāṇa, an important Jain text, records the life of Rishabhanatha and ten previous lifetimes according to the Digambara tradition. The Śvetāmbara tradition describes Rishabhanatha’s life in texts such as Hemachandra’s Trishashti-Shalakapurusha-Charitra and Adinathcharitra by Acharya Vardhamansuri. In Jain tradition, the life of a tirthankara is connected to five important events called the pancha kalyanaka. These include garbha (pregnancy), janma (birth), diksha (initiation), kevalyagyana (omniscience), and moksha (liberation).
According to Jain cosmology, the universe does not have a beginning or end. Its "Universal History" divides time into two halves—avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī—each containing six aras (spokes). These cycles repeat forever. Twenty-four Tirthankaras appear in each half, with the first Tirthankara founding Jainism after the destruction of dharma at the end of each cycle. This idea is similar to, but not identical to, the destruction of dharma at the end of Kali Yuga in Hindu mythology. In the current time cycle, Rishabhanatha is considered the first Tirthankara. Usually, all Tirthankaras are born in the fourth ara of each half. However, Rishabhanatha is an exception, as he was born at the end of the third half, known as sukhamā-dukhamā e rā.
All sub-traditions and sects of Jainism credit Rishabhanatha as the founder of Jainism in the present avsarpini (a time cycle). Jain chronology places Rishabhanatha in historical terms, as someone who lived millions of years ago. He is believed to have been born 10 years ago and lived for 8,400,000 purva (592.704 × 10 years). Jain texts describe his height as 500 bows (1312 ells), or about 4920 feet/1500 meters. Similar descriptions of non-human heights and ages are found for the next 21 Tirthankaras in Jain texts, according to Kristi Wiley, a scholar at the University of California, Berkeley, known for her work on Jainism. Most Indologists and scholars consider the first 22 of 24 Tirthankaras to be prehistorical or part of Jain mythology. However, some Jain writers and Indian scholars believe a few of these Tirthankaras may reflect historical figures, though the exaggerated details are considered mythical.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, a professor of comparative religions and philosophy at Oxford who later became India’s second president, noted that evidence shows Rishabhdeva was worshipped by the first century BCE. The Yajurveda mentions the names of three Tirthankaras—Rishabha, Ajitanatha, and Arishtanemi—Radhakrishnan explained. The Bhāgavata Purāṇa also supports the idea that Rishabha was the founder of Jainism.
Rishabhanatha was born to Nabhi and Marudevi, the king and queen of Ayodhya, on the ninth day of the dark half of the month of Chaitra (caitra krişna navamĩ). His connection to Ayodhya makes it a sacred place for Jains, similar to how Ayodhya is significant in Hinduism for the birth of Rama. In Jain tradition, the birth of a Tirthankara is marked by 14 auspicious dreams experienced by the mother. Marudevi reportedly saw these dreams on the second day of Ashadha (a month in the Jain calendar) during the new moon. These dreams were said to indicate the birth of a chakravartin or Tirthankara, as explained by Indra to Marudevi.
Rishabhanatha is believed to have had two wives, Sunanda and Sumangala. Sumangala is said to be the mother of ninety-nine sons, including Bharata, and one daughter, Brahmi. Sunanda is believed to be the mother of Bahubali and Sundari. Jain texts state that Rishabhanatha taught his daughters Brahmi and Sundari the Brahmi script and the science of numbers (Ank-Vidya), respectively. The Pannavana Sutra (2nd century BCE) and the Samavayanga Sutra (3rd century BCE), followed by the Śvetāmbaras, list many writing scripts known to ancient Jain tradition, with the Brahmi script—named after Rishabha’s daughter—being the most prominent. His eldest son, Bharata, is described as a ruler of ancient India from Ayodhya. Jain texts portray him as a fair and kind leader who avoided wealth and vices.
Rule, administration and teachings
Rishabhanatha was born during a time known as bhoga-bhumi, an era described as one of widespread happiness. It is said that people did not need to work because of magical trees called kalpavrikshas, which could fulfill wishes. Over time, these trees became less effective, and people began to seek help from the king. Rishabhanatha then taught six important skills to people: (1) Asi (swordsmanship for protection), (2) Masi (writing), (3) Krishi (farming), (4) Vidya (learning), (5) Vanijya (trading), and (6) Shilp (craftsmanship). These teachings marked the beginning of karma-bhumi, an age focused on action and work, allowing people to support themselves through professions. In Jainism, Rishabhanatha is credited with teaching humans essential skills such as using fire, cooking, and other abilities needed for daily life. He is said to have taught 72 sciences to men and 64 to women. The practice of marriage is believed to have started after Rishabhanatha married Sunanda, setting an example for others. According to Paul Dundas, Rishabhanatha is not only a spiritual leader in Jainism but also the founder of knowledge in many forms. He is viewed as a cultural hero for the current time in the universe’s history.
Traditional accounts state that Rishabhanatha was the first king to establish a capital city named Vinitanagara, also known as Ayodhya. He created the first laws for a king to govern a kingdom. He introduced a system of three social groups, or varnas, based on professions: kshatriyas (warriors), vaishyas (merchants), and shudras (artisans). Later, a figure named Bharata added a fourth group, the brahmins, to this system.
Renunciation
According to Jain stories, a dance by heavenly dancers was organized in Rishabhanatha's royal hall by Indra, the king of heaven. One of the dancers, Nilanjana, is said to have died during the dance. Her sudden death made Rishabhanatha realize that life is temporary, leading him to give up his kingdom, family, and wealth. This event is described in images from 100 BCE found at Kankali Tila. After this, Rishabhanatha is believed to have divided his kingdom among his 100 sons. Bharata is said to have received the city of Ayodhya, while Bahubali is believed to have received the city of Taxila and the kingdom of Gandhara (according to the Śvetāmbara tradition) or Podanapur (according to the Digambara tradition). Rishabhanatha became a monk in Siddharta-garden, near Ayodhya, under an Ashoka tree on the ninth day of the month of Chaitra Krishna in the Hindu calendar. Tirthankaras usually pull out five handfuls of hair when they begin their spiritual journey. However, the Śvetāmbara text Trisasti-salaka-purusa-caritra states that Rishabhanatha pulled out only four handfuls. As he was about to pull out a fifth handful, Indra asked him to stop because the remaining hair looked like emerald on his golden shoulders.
Akshaya Tritiya
Jains believe that Rishabhanatha was the first person to know how to properly offer food to a monk. His great-grandson, Shreyansa, who was a king of Gajapura (now known as Hastinapur), remembered a past life in which he had once given food to a Jain monk. He followed all the rules about food and prepared it without any mistakes. In this memory, he offered sugarcane juice (ikshu-rasa) to the monk using the correct method to end a 400-day fast. Jains celebrate this event every year as Akshaya tritiya on the third day of the bright fortnight in the month of Vaishaka (usually April). This day marks the beginning of the ritual called ahara-daana, where people who are not monks give food offerings to monks.
Omniscience
Rishabhanatha is said to have practiced strict self-discipline for a thousand years before achieving complete knowledge, called kevala jnana, under the Akshayavata tree in the town of Purimatala. This happened on the 11th day of falgun-krishna, a month in the traditional calendar, after he overcame four types of negative actions known as ghati-karma. Following this, divine beings are believed to have created special places for teaching, called samavasaranas, for him. He is credited with establishing five major vows for monks and twelve minor vows for laypeople. He also founded the sangha, a four-fold religious community that includes male and female monks and their followers. According to the Kalpa Sutra, his religious order is said to have included 84,000 male monks (sadhus) and 3,000,000 female monks (sadhvis).
Nirvana
Rishabhanatha is believed to have taught the beliefs of Jainism to many people. He is said to have achieved Nirvana or moksha, overcoming all four types of karma. This event is described as the liberation of his soul from the endless cycle of rebirths, allowing it to remain eternally in siddhaloka. According to Jain tradition, his death occurred on Ashtapada (also called Mount Kailash) on the fourteenth day of Magha Krishna in the Hindu calendar. At that time, he was estimated to be 84 lakh purva years old, with three years and eight and a half months remaining in the third era. Medieval Jain texts describe Rishabhanatha as practicing severe self-discipline for millions of years before returning to Ashtapada, where he fasted and meditated deeply to attain moksha. These texts also mention that Indra and other gods from heaven came to honor the place where Rishabhanatha achieved moksha.
Rishabhanatha’s successor, Ajitanatha, is said to have been born 50 lakh crore sagara years after him.
In literature
The Ādi purāṇa is a 9th-century Sanskrit poem. A 10th-century Kannada commentary on this poem was written by the poet Adikavi Pampa, who was active around 941 CE. This commentary is written in Champu style, which combines prose and verse, and it is divided into sixteen sections. It describes the lives of Rishabhanatha and his two sons. In the 11th century, Śvetāmbara monk Acharya Vardhamansuri wrote Adinathcharit, a biography of Rishabhanatha in Prakrit that contains 11,000 verses. The life of Lord Rishabhanatha is also described in the Mahapurana by Jinasena, Trisasti-salaka-purusa-caritra by Acharya Hemachandra, Kalpa Sutra (a Śvetāmbara Jain text by Bhadrabāhu that includes stories of some Tirthankaras), and Jambudvipa-prajnapti. The prayer Bhaktamara Stotra, written by Acharya Manatunga, is one of the most well-known texts that mentions Rishabhanatha. Hindu texts, such as the Rigveda, Vishnu Purana, and Bhagavata Purana (in its fifth section), also refer to Rishabha. In later Hindu texts, such as the Bhagavata Purana, he is described as an avatar of Vishnu, a great sage, and a person known for his knowledge and spiritual practices. Rishabhanatha is also mentioned in Buddhist writings. These texts include several Tirthankaras, such as Padmaprabha, Chandraprabha, Pushpadanta, Vimalanatha, Dharmanatha, and Neminatha. A Buddhist scripture called Dharmottarapradipa refers to Rishabhanatha as an Apta (a Tirthankara).
Iconography
Rishabhanatha is often shown sitting in a lotus position or standing in a meditation posture called kayotsarga. He is easily recognized by his long hair that reaches his shoulders and by the image of a bull in sculptures of him. According to the Śvetāmbara tradition, most statues of Rishabhanatha have hair on both shoulders. This is based on a story in the Trisasti-salaka-purusa-caritra, which describes him tearing out four handfuls of hair instead of the usual five. This detail makes his statues different from those of other Tirthankaras. Many of his statues can be found at the Palitana temples. Early statues from the first century CE in Mathura and Causa also show his long hair. Paintings often show important events from his life, such as his marriage, a ritual called abhisheka (consecration) performed by Indra, and scenes of him teaching pottery, painting, or weaving. His mother, Marudevi, is also shown in many paintings. He is linked to symbols like a bull, the Nyagrodha tree, the Gomukha Yaksha, and the Chakreshvari Yakshi.
The Statue of Ahimsa is a 108-foot (33 m) tall statue of Rishabhanatha, carved from a single rock. It is 1,840 square feet in size and includes a 121-foot (37 m) pedestal. It is considered the world's tallest Jain idol. Located at Mangi-Tungi hills near Nashik, Maharashtra, it is 4,343 feet (1,324 m) above sea level. Engineers received a certificate from the Guinness Book of World Records in recognition of this achievement. In 2016, a 108-foot statue of Rishabhanatha (Adinatha) was placed at Palitana.
In Madhya Pradesh, the Bawangaja hill near Barwani has a Gommateshvara statue covered at its peak. This site is important for Jain pilgrims, especially on the full moon in January. A statue of Rishabhanatha is carved from volcanic rock on the hill. At Gopachal Hill in Gwalior Fort, Madhya Pradesh, a 58.4-foot (17.8 m) statue of Rishabhanatha was carved between 1398 CE and 1536 CE by rulers of the Tomar dynasty, including Viramdev, Dungar Singh, and Kirti Singh. In 2024, a 43-foot (13 m) statue of Rishabhanatha was unveiled at the Abhay Prabhavana Museum.
Temples
Rishabhanatha is one of the five most highly respected Tirthankaras in Jainism, along with Mahavira, Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Shantinatha. Many Jain temples across India honor him, and these places are important for religious pilgrimages. Mount Shatrunjaya, located in southern Gujarat, is a hill believed to be where 23 of the 24 Tirthankaras taught, including Rishabha. It is said that many monks achieved freedom from rebirth cycles there. A large temple at this site is dedicated to Rishabha, marking the place where he reached enlightenment in Ayodhya. The main statue of Rishabha in this temple complex is called Adinatha or Dada, meaning "grandfather." This image is considered the most sacred among all statues in Jain worship and is believed by some to have the power to perform miracles, according to John Cort. Jain texts mention that Kunti and the five Pandava brothers from the Hindu story Mahabharata visited Mount Shatrunjaya to honor Rishabha and placed a statue of him there. Major temple complexes dedicated to Rishabha include the Palitana temples, Dilwara Temples, Kulpakji, Kundalpur, Paporaji, Soniji Ki Nasiyan, Rishabhdeo, Sanghiji, Hanumantal Bada Jain Mandir, Trilok Teerth Dham, Pavagadh, and Sarvodaya Jain temple.