Sufism (Arabic: التصوف‎, romanized: al-Taṣawwuf) is a spiritual practice within Islam that focuses on purification, spirituality, rituals, and simple living. People who practice Sufism are called "Sufis" (from صُوفِيّ, ṣūfīy). Historically, Sufis joined groups called "orders" or "tariqa" (plural: turuq). These groups were led by a spiritual teacher, known as a grand wali, who was part of a chain of teachers connected to the Prophet Muhammad. The goal of Sufis was to purify themselves and seek a closer relationship with God, aiming to return to their natural state of purity, called "fitra."

Sufism began early in Islamic history, partly as a response to the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and influenced by the teachings of Hasan al-Basri. Sufis did not support strict legalism but followed Islamic law and belonged to different schools of Islamic law and theology. Most Sufis, both in the past and today, are followers of Sunni Islam. However, some Sufi ideas later influenced Shia Islam, especially after the Safavid dynasty in Iran promoted a spiritual tradition called "irfan." A key Sufi practice is "dhikr," which involves remembering and praising God. Sufis also helped spread Islam through teaching and missionary work.

Although Sufism has declined somewhat in modern times and faced opposition from groups like Salafism and Wahhabism, it remains important in the Islamic world. Sufism has also influenced spiritual practices in the West and is widely studied by scholars.

Definitions

The Arabic word tasawwuf (which means "Sufism") is often translated as "Sufism" and is usually described by Western writers as Islamic mysticism. In Islamic writings, the term Sufi has had many different meanings, used by both people who support and those who oppose Sufism. Old Sufi writings focused on teachings and practices from the Quran and the sunnah (the teachings and actions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad). These writings explained tasawwuf as a way to reach spiritual and moral goals, and they helped guide people in achieving those goals. Other terms were often used in everyday situations to describe specific spiritual qualities or roles.

Some modern scholars have described Sufism in different ways, such as "making Islamic faith and practice stronger" or "the process of achieving spiritual and moral ideals."

The term Sufism was first used in European languages in the 18th century by scholars from Europe who studied the East. These scholars saw Sufism mainly as a type of intellectual teaching and a literary tradition that was different from what they considered the simple belief in one God in Islam. Sufism was often misunderstood as a form of universal mysticism, unlike the strict religious rules of Islam. Recently, historian Nile Green has said that during the medieval period, Sufism and Islam were almost the same. Today, scholars use the term Sufism to describe a wide variety of social, cultural, political, and religious activities connected to Sufis.

Sufism has been described in many ways, including "Islamic mysticism," "the mystical expression of Islamic faith," "the inner part of Islam," "the mystical side of Islam," "the main way mysticism shows in Islam," and "the deepening and strengthening of Islamic faith and practice."

Etymology

The word "Sufi" is believed to have originally meant "someone who wears wool," as the Arabic word for wool is "ṣūf." The Encyclopaedia of Islam says other theories about the word's origin are not supported. In the past, woolen clothing was linked to people who lived simply and focused on spiritual matters. Scholars like Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun argued that the only valid explanation is the connection to wool. Some medieval scholars, such as Al-Biruni, thought the term "Sufi" may have developed from the Greek word "sophos," meaning wisdom or knowledge.

Another possible origin comes from the Arabic word "ṣafā," which means "purity." In Islamic teachings, "tasawwuf" is often connected to "tazkiyah," a concept meaning "self-purification." These ideas were combined by the Sufi scholar Al-Hasan ibn Salih al-Rudhabari, who said, "A Sufi is someone who wears wool and practices purity."

Some people suggest the term "Sufi" comes from "Ahl al-Ṣuffa," meaning "the people of the bench." This group included poor followers of the Prophet Muhammad who gathered regularly for spiritual practices like "dhikr." One well-known member was Abu Hurayra. Some believe these individuals were among the earliest Sufis.

History

The current agreement is that Sufism began in the Hejaz, which is now part of Saudi Arabia. Sufism has been practiced by Muslims since the earliest days of Islam, even before some religious divisions among Muslims formed.

Sufi groups are based on the bay'ah (Arabic: بَيْعَة, meaning "pledge") that Muhammad’s companions (ṣahabah) gave to him. By making this pledge, the companions promised to serve God.

The Quran says, "Those who give a pledge to you (O Muhammad) are giving a pledge to God. The hand of God is over their hands. Whoever breaks their pledge harms only themselves, and whoever keeps their promise will receive a great reward from God." (Quran 48:10)

Sufis believe that by making a pledge (bayʿah) to a legitimate Sufi teacher (shaykh), they are also making a pledge to Muhammad. This creates a spiritual connection between the person seeking guidance and Muhammad. Sufis believe Muhammad is the way to learn about and connect with God. Ali, a close companion of Muhammad, is seen as a key figure who directly pledged allegiance to Muhammad. Sufis believe knowledge about Muhammad and a connection to him can be gained through Ali. This idea is supported by a hadith, which Sufis consider authentic, where Muhammad said, "I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate." Prominent Sufis like Ali Hujwiri and Junayd of Baghdad respected Ali for his high position in Tasawwuf (Sufism).

Historian Jonathan A.C. Brown notes that some companions of Muhammad, such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, were more devoted to prayer, self-discipline, and understanding divine mysteries than required by Islam. Hasan al-Basri, a later figure, is seen as a key person in the "science of purifying the heart."

Sufism developed early in Islamic history, partly as a response to the worldly focus of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), and was greatly influenced by Hasan al-Basri.

Sufis believe that in its early stages, Sufism was simply about deeply internalizing Islamic teachings. Some say Sufism comes directly from the Quran, which is recited, meditated on, and experienced. Others say Sufism is about strictly following Muhammad’s example to strengthen the heart’s connection to God.

Later, Sufism grew through figures like Dawud Tai and Bayazid Bastami. Early Sufis were known for strictly following the sunnah (Muhammad’s practices). For example, Bastami refused to eat watermelon because there was no proof Muhammad ever ate it. According to the Persian poet Jami, Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah (died around 716) was the first person called a "Sufi." The term "Sufi" was also linked to Kufa, a city where early scholars like Abu Hashim al-Kufi, Jabir ibn Hayyan, and Abdak al-Sufi were known by the term. Later figures included Hatim al-Attar and Al-Junayd al-Baghdadi. Others, like Al-Harith al-Muhasibi and Sari al-Saqati, were not called Sufis during their lifetimes but were later recognized for their focus on tazkiah (purification).

Important early writers of Sufism include Uwais al-Qarani, Hasan of Basra, Harith al-Muhasibi, Abu Nasr as-Sarraj, and Said ibn al-Musayyib. Ruwaym and Junayd of Baghdad were also influential early figures, and many early Sufis were students of one of them.

Historically, Sufis often belonged to groups called tariqa (plural: ṭuruq) – communities led by a spiritual leader (wali) who traced their teachings back to Muhammad through a chain of teachers.

Before the 11th century, few complete chains of teachers connected to Muhammad were recorded. However, these chains were symbolically important because they represented a connection to divine authority. Spiritual power and blessings were passed through these chains to followers.

These groups meet in places like zawiyas, khanqahs, or tekke for spiritual gatherings (majalis).

Sufis aim for ihsan, which means worshiping God as if seeing Him, or if not possible, knowing He sees you. Sufis see Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the perfect human who represents the divine qualities of God, and view him as their ultimate spiritual guide.

Most Sufi orders trace their teachings back to Muhammad through Ali ibn Abi Talib, except the Naqshbandi order, which traces them through Abu Bakr. However, joining a tariqa was not required. In the medieval period, Sufism was widespread and not limited to specific groups.

Sufism existed long before it was organized into formal groups (tariqa) in the early Middle Ages. A tariqa is a school or order of Sufism focused on seeking ḥaqīqah (ultimate truth). Each tariqa has a murshid (spiritual guide) and members called murīdīn, meaning "those who desire to know and love God."

Over time, Sufi groups influenced Shi'i movements, such as Isma'ilism, leading to the Safaviyya order converting to Shia Islam and spreading Twelverism in Iran.

Sufism exists in both Sunni and Shia Islam and is not a separate sect, as some mistakenly believe. It is a method of approaching religion, aiming to elevate regular religious practices to a higher spiritual level by fulfilling duties and seeking a deeper connection with God. Academic studies show that Sufism, as a distinct tradition separate from Islam, is often a result of Western orientalism and modern Islamic fundamentalism.

As a mystical and ascetic part of Islam, Sufism focuses on purifying the inner self. Sufis seek direct experience of God through training in intuitive and emotional understanding. Tasawwuf is considered a science of the soul and has always been part of Orthodox Islam. Ibn Taymiyyah described Sufis as followers of the Sunna and respected figures like Abdul-Qadir Gilani.

In his book Al-Munqidh min al-dalal, Al-Ghazali wrote about his spiritual journey and the importance of Sufism in Islamic life.

Sufi orders

This chart shows the spiritual chain (silsila) of major Sufi orders and how they are connected to the Prophet Muhammad.

Note: This chart is designed to help explain how spiritual teachers are linked through their lineage. To make the chart easier to read, some names of teachers in between are not included. For a full list of names in each spiritual order's lineage, please visit their specific pages.

Shaykh Abdul Qadir al-Jilani → Shaykh Abū Saʿīd al-Mukharramī → Shaykh Abū al-Ḥasan al-Qurashī (al-Ḥakkārī) → Shaykh Abū al-Faraj al-Ṭarsūsī → Shaykh ʿAbd al-Wāḥid al-Tamīmī → Shaykh ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Tamīmī → Shaykh Abū Bakr al-Shiblī → Shaykh al-Junayd al-Baghdādī → Shaykh al-Sarī al-Saqaṭī → Shaykh Maʿrūf al-Karkhī → Imam ʿAlī al-Riḍā → Imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim → Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq → Imam Muḥammad al-Bāqir → Imam Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn → Imam al-Ḥusayn → Imam ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti → Khwāja ʿUthmān Harvānī → Ḥājjī Sharīf Zindānī → Muḥammad Maudūd Chishtī → Abū Yūsuf Chishtī → Abū Muḥammad ibn Abī Aḥmad → Abū Aḥmad ʿAbdāl Chishtī → Abū Isḥāq Shāmī Chishtī → Mamshād ʿUlw Dīnawarī → Amīnuddīn Abū Hubayrah Baṣrī → Saʿduddīn Huḍhayfah Marʿashī → Ibrāhīm ibn Adham al-Balkhī → Fuḍayl ibn ʿIyāḍ → ʿAbd al-Wāḥid ibn Zayd → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Baha' al-din Naqshband → Sayyid Amīr Kulāl → Muḥammad Bābā Sammāsī → ʿAlī Rāmitanī (Azīzān) → Maḥmūd Anjīr Faghnawī → ʿĀrif Riwgarī → ʿAbd al-Khāliq Ghujduwānī → Abū Yaʿqūb Yūsuf al-Hamadānī → Abū ʿAlī al-Farmadī al-Ṭūsī → Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī al-Kharaqānī → Abū Yazīd al-Bisṭāmī → Imām Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq → Qāsim ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr → Salmān al-Fārisī → Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Shihab ad-din Suhrawardi → Abū Najīb ʿAbd al-Qādir Suhrawardī → Khwāja Aḥmad Ghazzālī → Shaykh Abū Bakr Nisāj → Shaykh Abū al-Qāsim Gurgānī → Khwāja Usmān Maghribī → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Kātib → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Rudhbārī → Imām Junayd Baghdādī → Sarrī Saqaṭī → Maʿrūf Karkhī → Dāwūd Ṭāʾī → Ḥabīb al-ʿAjamī → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Najm ad-Dīn Kubrā → Shaykh Rūzbahān Baqlī → Khwāja ʿAmmār Yāsir → Shaykh Abū Najīb Suhrawardī → Khwāja Aḥmad Ghazzālī → Shaykh Abū Bakr Nisāj → Shaykh Abū al-Qāsim Gurgānī → Khwāja Usmān Maghribī → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Kātib → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Rudhbārī → Imām Junayd Baghdādī → Sarrī Saqaṭī → Maʿrūf Karkhī → Dāwūd Ṭāʾī → Ḥabīb al-ʿAjamī → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Nūruddīn Abū al-Ḥasan al-Shādhilī → ʿAbd al-Salām ibn Mashīsh → ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Madanī → Taqīuddīn al-Ṣūfī → Fakhru

Aims and objectives

Muslims believe that Islam is the way to reach Allah and aim to get closer to God in Paradise, both after death and after the Last Judgment. Sufis also believe that it is possible to get closer to God and experience His presence in this life. The main goal of Sufism is to please God by trying to return to the original state of purity called fitra.

For Sufis, the outer rules include laws about worship, daily life, marriage, court decisions, and criminal law, often called "qanun." The inner rules focus on repenting for sins, removing bad habits, and developing good character.

Sufis believe that spiritual growth happens when a teacher passes divine light from their heart to a student's heart, not through worldly knowledge. They also believe that teachers must follow divine law without mistakes.

According to Moojan Momen, a key Sufi belief is the idea of al-Insān al-Kāmil, or the "Perfect Human." This belief says there is always a "qutb" (a spiritual leader) on Earth who acts as a perfect connection between God and humans. This leader is similar to the Shi'i imam, but this belief causes conflict with Shia Islam because both the qutb and the imam are seen as spiritual guides. Sufis' promise to follow a teacher is seen as conflicting with devotion to the imam.

For example, someone wanting to join the Mevlevi Order might be asked to work in a poor people's kitchen for 1,001 days before starting spiritual training. They might also spend another 1,001 days in solitary reflection before completing their training.

Some Sufi teachers use stories, symbols, and metaphors when teaching, especially to mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims. While teaching methods vary among Sufi groups, Sufism as a whole focuses on personal spiritual experiences. Because of this, Sufism has sometimes been compared to non-Islamic mystical traditions.

Many Sufis believe that reaching the highest spiritual goals requires living with and serving a teacher for a long time. An example is Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who is linked to the Naqshbandi Order. He is said to have served his first teacher for 20 years until the teacher passed away. Later, he served other teachers for long periods and helped the poor. His teacher later told him to care for animals, such as healing their wounds and helping them.

Muhammad is very important in Sufism. Sufis have always respected Muhammad as the greatest spiritual leader. The poet Saadi Shirazi said, "Choosing a path different from the prophet’s will never lead to success." Rumi said he learned self-control and avoiding worldly desires from Muhammad. Ibn Arabi called Muhammad the most perfect human and said that God’s qualities are fully shown in Muhammad. Fariduddin Attar praised Muhammad in a way no poet had before, saying he is the guide for all people. Sufis believe Muhammad can help people reach God and that following Muhammad’s example is essential. Some Sufis even refused to eat certain foods if Muhammad never ate them.

In the 13th century, a Sufi poet named Al-Busiri wrote a poem called Qaṣīdat Al-Burda, which praises Muhammad. This poem is still widely recited today.

Ibn Arabi believed that Islam is the best religion because of Muhammad. He said that the first thing created was the reality of Muhammad, and that Muhammad is the greatest human and the best example for people to follow. He also believed that God’s qualities are fully shown in Muhammad, and that knowing Muhammad is the same as knowing God. He said Muhammad is the leader of all people in this life and the next, which makes Islam the best religion.

Sufis believe that the sharia (rules of Islam), tariqa (spiritual path), and haqiqa (truth) all work together. Sufism helps people, called salik, travel through spiritual stages until they reach tawhid, the belief that God is one. Ibn Arabi said that someone who claims to guide others to God but breaks even one rule of Islamic law is not a true teacher, even if they perform miracles.

Malik ibn Anas, one of the founders of the four major Sunni law schools, supported combining mystical knowledge with religious law. For example, Qadi Iyad, a 12th-century Maliki judge, was later honored for his work in both areas.

Devotional practices

Sufi devotional practices differ among groups. To practice, followers must follow Islamic rules, such as praying five times daily, fasting during Ramadan, and other required acts. They should also perform extra prayers, like those taught by the Prophet Muhammad. A famous saying from God, called a Hadith Qudsi, explains that God loves when His followers do what He requires. He also loves when they do extra good deeds, which can lead to His love and guidance.

A Sufi must believe correctly in Islamic teachings and avoid sins, worldly desires, and harmful habits. They must also overcome pride, envy, and the desire to delay change. Sufi practices are not a way to gain knowledge about God. Instead, they create opportunities for knowledge if the person is prepared and guided by a teacher. Sufis may also focus on becoming humble and free from bad habits through practices like solitude, silence, and self-discipline, as taught by Imam Al-Ghazali.

Dhikr is remembering God, as commanded in the Quran. It includes repeating God’s names, prayers, or teachings from the Quran and Hadith. Dhikr can mean any action that keeps God in mind. The Quran says Muhammad is a perfect example of dhikr. Some forms of dhikr are for all Muslims, not just Sufis.

Dhikr practices vary between Sufi groups. Some use ceremonies called sema, which include singing, dancing, and music. For example, the Mevlevi order is known for whirling dances. These practices aim to help followers focus on God and let go of personal desires.

Some Sufi groups emphasize a type of dhikr called Dhikr-e-Qulb, where they imagine God written on their heart. Muraqaba is a practice similar to meditation, where followers focus on God through concentration and prayer.

Sufi whirling is a form of prayer and meditation used by the Mevlevi order. Dervishes spin in circles during sema to symbolize the movement of planets around the Sun. Their clothing has symbolic meanings, like a hat representing the end of the ego and a white skirt symbolizing a shroud.

Most traditional Sunni Sufi groups, like the Qadiriyya and Chisti, believe dancing during dhikr or sema is not allowed. Musical instruments, except for the daf, are generally not used in Sufi practices. However, some Sufi groups, like those in India, use music in their devotional songs called Qawwali. These songs, created by Sufi saint Amir Khusrau, are now performed with instruments like the harmonium and tabla. Pakistani singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan helped make Qawwali popular worldwide.

Saints

The Arabic word walī (plural ʾawliyāʾ) means "custodian," "protector," "helper," or "friend." In Islamic tradition, it is often used to describe a saint, known as a "friend of God." These saints are believed to have received special favor from God and are seen as holy individuals chosen to perform miracles. Early Islamic scholars supported the idea of saints, using parts of the Quran and teachings from the Prophet Muhammad to explain their existence.

During the time when Sufism (a spiritual branch of Islam) grew in popularity, many early Sufi mystics became respected saints. Examples include Hasan of Basra, Farqad Sabakhi, and Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya. By the 12th to 14th centuries, Sufism organized into groups called tariqahs, and the worship of saints became widespread. At this time, saints were seen as deeply spiritual people who taught others through their wisdom and actions.

In many parts of the world, especially South Asia, people visit the tombs of saints, scholars, and righteous individuals as a form of devotion. Famous examples include the tombs of Sayyid Ali Hamadani in Tajikistan, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Pakistan, and Moinuddin Chishti in India. In Morocco, the Zaouia Moulay Idriss II and the shrine of Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi are visited yearly during a celebration called the Mawlid. Some religious groups, like the Salafis, have criticized these practices.

In Islamic mysticism, karamat (Arabic: karāmāt) refers to supernatural events performed by saints. These events include miracles, predicting the future, or understanding hidden thoughts. Belief in these miracles has been an important part of Sunni Islam for many years.

A dargah (Persian: dargâh) is a shrine built over the grave of a respected religious figure, often a Sufi saint. People visit dargahs for spiritual reflection, called ziyarat. These shrines are often part of larger communities that include mosques, schools, hospitals, and places for meetings and hospitality.

Theoretical perspectives

Traditional Islamic scholars have identified two main branches in the practice of Sufism. These branches help explain the different methods used by Sufi teachers and spiritual traditions.

One branch focuses on moving from the signs of God to the source of all signs, often described as moving from the arts to the Artisan. In this approach, a seeker works to purify their lower self by removing influences that prevent them from seeing all creation as the work of God. This method is followed by Imam Al-Ghazali and most Sufi orders.

The other branch moves from the source of all signs to the signs themselves, or from the Artisan to His works. Here, a seeker experiences a strong attraction to God, called jadhba, and begins their spiritual journey with a glimpse of the ultimate goal: directly sensing the presence of God. This does not replace the effort to purify the heart, as in the first branch, but begins the journey from a different starting point. This method is primarily practiced by the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.

Some modern scholars also recognize a third branch, linked to the Ottoman scholar Said Nursi. His teachings, found in his Quran commentary called Risale-i Nur, emphasize strict following of the example of Prophet Muhammad, known as sunnah. This path is seen as a complete spiritual practice for those who do not have a Sufi teacher.

Sufism has greatly influenced many areas of intellectual study. For example, the concept of "subtle centers of cognition" (Lataif-e-sitta) describes the spiritual awakening of intuition. These centers are thought to be purified step by step to help seekers complete their spiritual journey. A summary of this system was written by Muhammad Emin Er, a modern teacher of this tradition.

Sufi ideas about the mind and spirit have influenced thinking inside and outside Islam. These ideas are based on three key concepts: the nafs (the lower self or ego), the qalb (the spiritual heart), and the ruh (the soul). These elements interact in different ways, leading to three spiritual types: the tyrant (controlled by the nafs), the person of faith and balance (guided by the qalb), and the person deeply in love with God (led by the ruh).

Robert Frager, a psychologist and Sufi teacher in the Jerrahi order, has helped spread Sufi ideas in the West. He was born in the United States, became a Muslim through his study of Sufism, and wrote many books connecting Sufism with psychology.

Sufi ideas about the universe and the nature of existence, known as Sufi cosmology and metaphysics, are also important areas of study.

Prominent Sufis

Rabi'a al-Adawiyya, also known as Rabi'a Basri, was a Sufi saint and one of the earliest Sufi mystics. She was a religious leader from Iraq. Rabi'a was born into a very poor family. Later in life, she was captured by bandits and sold into slavery. Her master freed her after seeing a light shine above her head during the night. Hasan of Basra, a prominent Sufi leader, once said, "I spent a full day and night with Rabi'a. I never thought of myself as a man, and she never thought of herself as a woman. When I saw her, I felt like I had nothing, and she seemed completely sincere." Rabi'a al-Adawiyya taught that loving God is the most important part of a holy life. She once ran through the streets of Basra, Iraq, and said:

"O God! If I worship You out of fear of Hell, burn me in Hell. If I worship You out of hope for Paradise, keep me out of Paradise. But if I worship You for Your own sake, do not refuse me Your eternal beauty."

There are different beliefs about where Rabi'a Basri died and where she was buried. Some say she is buried in Jerusalem, while others say she is buried in Basra.

Junayd al-Baghdadi (830–910) was an early Sufi. He was a Persian Sufi and one of the most famous early Islamic saints. He was a central figure in the spiritual traditions of many Sufi orders. Junayd taught in Baghdad for his entire life and played an important role in developing Sufi beliefs. Like Hasan of Basra before him, Junayd was respected by his students and quoted by other mystics. Because of his importance, Junayd was often called "the Sultan."

Bayazid Bastami was a well-known and influential Sufi from the Tayfuriyya order. He was born in 804 in Bastam. Bayazid was known for his deep devotion to Islamic traditions and practices.

Shaykh Abdul Qadir Gilani (1077–1166) was a Hanbali jurist and Sufi scholar from Mesopotamia, with Persian roots. He was born in Na'if, a town near Baghdad, and studied Hanbali law there. He learned fiqh from Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi, hadith from Abu Bakr ibn Muzaffar, and tafsir from Abu Muhammad Ja'far. His Sufi teacher was Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas. After finishing his studies, Gilani lived alone in the desert for 25 years. In 1127, he returned to Baghdad and began teaching. He joined the school of his former teacher, Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi, and was popular with students. He taught hadith and tafsir in the morning and held discussions about the heart and the Quran in the afternoon. He founded the Qadiriyya order, named after his family.

Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili (died 1258) founded the Shadhiliyya order. He taught that his followers should be grateful for what God gives them, rather than denying themselves or destroying the ego. His order was called the "Order of Gratitude." He also gave his followers 18 litanies, one of which, the Hizb al-Bahr, is still recited today.

Moinuddin Chishti (1141–1236), known as Gharīb Nawāz ("Benefactor of the Poor"), was the most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order. He brought the order to the Indian subcontinent. The spiritual chain of the Chishti order in India included Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, and Nizamuddin Auliya. Moinuddin Chishti moved to India after a dream in which the Prophet Muhammad blessed him. He settled in Ajmer, where he gained a large following. He promoted peace between Muslims and non-Muslims through the Sufi concept of Sulh-e-Kul.

Bahauddin Naqshband (1318–1389) was a Sufi master who founded the Naqshbandi order. He was born in Qasr-i Hinduvan near Bukhara, Uzbekistan, and was a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. He studied under Mohammad Baba As-Samasi and emphasized inner reflection, discipline, and balancing spiritual practices with daily life. His teachings were based on the Quran and the Sunnah, and he encouraged followers to follow the example of the Prophet Muhammad.

The Naqshbandi order became one of the most influential Sufi orders in Islamic history. It spread across Central Asia, the Middle East, South Asia, and the West. The order focused on spiritual discipline, inner growth, and community involvement.

Ahmed Tijani (1737–1815), also known as Sidi Ahmed Tijani, founded the Tijaniyya Sufi order. He was born in Aïn Madhi, Algeria, and died in Fez.

Al-Ghazali (c. 1058–1111) was a Persian scholar, Sufi, and theologian. He was a leading figure in the Shafi'i school of law and wrote the book Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm ad-dīn ("The Revival of the Religious Sciences"). He was called "Proof of Islam" and considered a renewer of the faith. His work Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers") was a major contribution to philosophy.

Sayyid Badiuddin was a Sufi saint who founded the Madariyya order. He was born in Aleppo, Syria, to a Syed family. His teacher was Bayazid Tayfur al-Bistami. After visiting Medina, he traveled to India to spread Islam and founded the Madariyya order. His tomb is in Makanpur.

Ibn Arabi (1165–1240) was a Sufi mystic known for his deep spiritual knowledge. He founded the Al Akbariyya order, which continues today. His writings, such as al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-Hikam, explored the concept of tawhid (Divine Unity). His teachings later became known as the school of wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being).

Notable Sufi works

Some of the most well-known Sufi works include:

Sufis have also helped explain the hidden meanings of the Qur'an through their writings. Some examples include the following:

Reception

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Over many centuries, Sufism and Sufi Muslims have faced persecution, including religious discrimination, violence, and suppression. This has involved the destruction of Sufi shrines, tombs, and mosques, the banning of Sufi orders, and discrimination against Sufi followers in several Muslim-majority countries. In 1925, the Republic of Turkey banned all Sufi orders and shut down their institutions after Sufis opposed the new secular government. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, Shia Sufis have been harassed, reportedly because they do not support the government's belief that a supreme Shiite jurist should lead the nation politically.

In most other Muslim-majority countries, attacks on Sufis and their shrines have come from followers of strict Islamic movements like Salafism and Wahhabism. These groups believe that practices such as visiting the tombs of Sufi saints, celebrating their birthdays, and holding dhikr ceremonies (which involve remembering God) are bid‘ah (unacceptable innovations) and shirk (polytheism).

In Egypt, at least 305 people were killed and more than 100 injured in November 2017 during a terrorist attack on a Sufi mosque in Sinai. This attack is considered one of the worst in Egypt's modern history, with most of the victims being Sufis.

Sufi mysticism has long interested Western scholars, especially those who study the East. In the 18th and 19th centuries, European scholars treated Sufism and Islam as separate subjects, leading to a focus on translating Sufi mystical texts rather than understanding Sufism's role in Islamic practice. This led to a separation of Sufism from its Islamic roots in the West. Figures like Rumi have become well known in the United States, where Sufism is seen as a peaceful and non-political form of Islam. Seyyed Hossein Nasr says that these views are not accurate from the Sufi perspective.

The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works to integrate Muslims into European society, sees Sufism as especially helpful for promoting interfaith understanding and harmony in diverse societies. It describes Sufism as a symbol of tolerance and humanism, being open, flexible, and non-violent. Philip Jenkins, a professor at Baylor University, says that Sufis are not just allies for the West, but could be the greatest hope for pluralism and democracy in Muslim countries. Many governments and organizations have supported the promotion of Sufism to counter violent and intolerant forms of Islam. For example, the Chinese and Russian governments support Sufism to prevent Islamic extremism. The British government, especially after the 2005 London bombings, has supported Sufi groups in its efforts to combat Muslim extremism. The RAND Corporation, an American think tank, published a report titled "Building Moderate Muslim Networks," which encouraged the U.S. government to support Muslim groups that oppose extremism. The report highlighted Sufism's role as moderate traditionalists open to change and thus as allies against violence. News organizations like the BBC, Economist, and Boston Globe have also viewed Sufism as a way to address violent Muslim extremists.

Idries Shah believes that Sufism is universal, with roots older than Islam and Christianity. He quotes Suhrawardi as saying that Sufism was known and practiced by ancient sages, including the Egyptian Hermes. He also mentions Ibn al-Farid, who said that Sufism existed before the formal systems of religion. However, modern scholars have rejected Shah's views. In Western countries, some groups now allow non-Muslims to learn about Sufism, which some Muslim scholars oppose, as they believe such instruction should be within the realm of Islam.

Sufism has been compared to the mystical traditions of some Eastern religions. In the 10th century, the Persian scholar Al-Biruni wrote about similarities between Sufism and Hinduism, such as comparing Atma with ruh, tanasukh with reincarnation, Mokhsha with Fanafillah, Ittihad with Nirvana, and Vedanta with Wahdatul Ujud. Other scholars have compared Sufi concepts like Waḥdat al-Wujūd to Advaita Vedanta, Fanaa to Samadhi, Muraqaba to Dhyana, and tariqa to the Noble Eightfold Path.

The 9th-century Iranian mystic Bayazid Bostami is said to have borrowed some ideas from Hinduism into his Sufism, under the concept of baqaa, meaning perfection. Ibn al-Arabi and Mansur al-Hallaj both referred to Muhammad as having reached perfection and called him Al-Insān al-Kāmil. Inayat Khan believed that the God worshipped by Sufis is not specific to any religion, but is the same God worshipped by all people, regardless of their beliefs.

Buddhist stories also appear in Sufi traditions, such as the story of blind men describing an elephant.

There is evidence that Sufism influenced Jewish philosophy and ethics. One of the earliest works was "Duties of the Heart" by Bahya ibn Paquda, which was later translated into Hebrew as "Chovot HaLevavot." This book discusses ethical topics similar to those found in Sufi writings, such as "Bab al-Tawakkul" (Trust in God), "Bab al-Taubah" (Repentance), and "Bab al-Zuhd" (Asceticism). In his work, Baḥya directly quotes Sufi sayings, referring to them as "Perushim." However, he did not fully support the ascetic practices of Sufis, even though he admired their ethical ideas.

Abraham Maimonides, the son of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides, believed that Sufi practices and ideas continued the traditions of the biblical prophets. His main work, "Kitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn" (A Comprehensive Guide for the Servants of God), was written in Judeo-Arabic and was much longer than his father's "Guide for the Perplexed." He showed a strong appreciation for Sufism. Followers of his path continued a Jewish-Sufi form of pietism for at least a century and are considered the founders of this tradition, which was centered in Egypt.

These followers, who called their path Hasidism (not to be confused with the later Jewish Hasidic movement) or Sufism (Tasawwuf), practiced spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting, and sleep deprivation. They formed their own brotherhood, guided by a religious leader similar to a Sufi sheikh.

Culture

The 13th-century Persian poet Rumi is seen as one of the most important people in Sufism and among the greatest poets in history. His poems have become very popular in the United States, largely because of the translations done by Coleman Barks. Elif Şafak’s novel The Forty Rules of Love is a story about Rumi meeting the Persian dervish Shams Tabrizi.

Muhammad Iqbal, a famous Urdu poet, wrote about Sufism, philosophy, and Islam in his English work The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam.

Sama is an important part of many Sufi groups. In South Asia, it is most closely linked to the Chishti Order. It became a special type of art, especially during the time of Khwaja Amir Khusrau and his Sufi friends, such as Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya. Sufis used Sama, which involved listening to poetry or Islamic mystical verses with musical instruments, to experience spiritual feelings and reach a deep connection with Allah and His Prophet.

Many painters and artists have used Sufi themes in their work. One notable example is a large painting from the 19th or early 20th century in the Brooklyn Museum’s Islamic gallery. The painting, created by Abbas Al-Musavi, shows the Battle of Karbala, a violent event in the conflict between Sunni and Shia Muslims. During this battle, Husayn ibn Ali, a grandson of the prophet Muhammad, died and is honored as a martyr in Islam.

In July 2016, at the International Sufi Festival in Noida Film City, India, H.E. Abdul Basit, who was then Pakistan’s High Commissioner to India, said during the opening of an exhibition by Farkhananda Khan ‘Fida’ that “there is no need for words to explain the paintings, as they carry a message of friendship and peace in Sufism.”

Scientific research

A study published in 2023 explored how Islamic-Sufi spirituality affects mental health, finding that it is linked to lower levels of anxiety and depression in patients.

Another study focused on political Sufism in modern Kazakhstan, analyzing how religious traditions have remained consistent over time and how Sufi groups influence political activities.

A summary of Sufi research at American universities showed that Sufism is now a major topic of academic study, with specific programs and research groups dedicated to examining its different aspects.

Recent research has also analyzed how ideas about Sufism are organized and how interest in Sufi studies has grown worldwide.