The Pythia (pronounced /ˈpɪθiə/; Ancient Greek: Πυθία [pyːˈtʰíaː]) was the title of the high priestess of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi in central Greece. She served as the temple’s oracle and was known as the Oracle of Delphi. Her title was sometimes translated in English as the Pythoness.
The Pythia was established by at least the 8th century BC (some sources suggest the shrine may be as old as 1400 BC). She was widely believed to deliver prophecies while in a state of divine inspiration from Apollo. By the end of the 7th century BC, the Pythian priestess became the most important oracle among the Greeks and remained active until the late 4th century AD. During this time, the Delphic Oracle was the most respected and influential oracle in the Greek world and one of the most powerful women of the classical era. The oracle is one of the best-recorded religious institutions of the classical Greeks. Many famous authors, including Aeschylus, Aristotle, Herodotus, Plato, and others, wrote about her.
However, details about how the Pythia performed her role are unclear. Classical writers (from the 6th to 4th centuries BC) assumed the process was common knowledge and did not explain it. Later writers, from the 1st century BC to the 4th century AD, provided conflicting accounts. One story claimed the Pythia spoke in a frenzied or ecstatic state caused by vapors rising from a crack in the rock and that she spoke in nonsense. Priests then interpreted her words and rewrote them into poetic lines called dactylic hexameter, many of which are found in Greek literature. Some scholars, such as Joseph Fontenrose and Lisa Maurizio, argue that ancient sources consistently describe the Pythia speaking clearly and giving prophecies in her own voice. Herodotus, who wrote in the 5th century BC, recorded that the Pythia spoke in dactylic hexameters.
Name
The name Pythia comes from the Greek phrase "pythia hiereia," which means "priestess of the Pythian Apollo." This name is connected to "Pythios," a title for Apollo, which itself comes from "Pytho," the original name of Delphi in ancient myths. The word "Pythia" is likely linked to "Python," the name of a large snake that Apollo killed near Delphi. In terms of its name's origin, the Greeks used the verb "púthein," meaning "to rot," to describe the sweet, sickly smell from the decomposing body of the dead Python after Apollo defeated it.
Origins
The Delphic oracle may have existed in some form as early as 1400 BC, during the middle period of Mycenaean Greece (1750–1050 BC). Evidence suggests that Apollo took over the shrine when priests from Delos arrived in the 8th century, replacing an earlier dedication to Gaia. This change in the 8th century, making the Oracle a shrine to Apollo, is connected to the growing importance of the city of Corinth and sites in the Corinthian Gulf.
The earliest written account of the Delphic oracle’s origin is found in the Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo. Scholars believe this hymn was written around 580–570 BC. It describes how Apollo chose his first priests, who were Cretans from Knossos traveling to Pylos. Apollo, known as Delphinios, appeared as a dolphin and guided the Cretans to a place where they would receive rich offerings. The Cretans followed him, singing a song called "Iē Paiēon," which was likely a name for Apollo in Mycenaean times.
Scholar G. L. Huxley notes that the hymn suggests Cretan priests once served at Delphi. Archaeological findings, such as Cretan bronzes and sculptures at Delphi from the 8th century onward, support this. Hesiod, an early visitor to Delphi in the late 8th century, saw the omphalos, a sacred stone.
Later stories about the Delphic Oracle’s origins include one from the 1st century BC writer Diodorus Siculus. He described a goat herder named Coretas who discovered a crack in the earth. Inside, he felt a divine presence and could see the past and future. Villagers later visited the site, experiencing shaking and trance-like states. A shrine was built there by 1600 BC. After several deaths, a young woman was chosen to act as a link between the gods and people. Eventually, she spoke for the gods.
Earlier myths state that the oracle was first associated with the goddesses Themis and Phoebe, and the site was sacred to Gaia. Later, it became sacred to Poseidon, the god of earthquakes. During the Greek Dark Age (11th–9th century BC), Apollo was said to take over the temple, driving out the twin serpents of Gaia. Myths later claimed that Phoebe or Themis gave the site to Apollo, justifying his priests’ takeover. It is possible that Poseidon was appeased by the gift of a new site in Troizen.
Diodorus described the Pythia, the oracle, as a young virgin, as purity was important for her role. However, he told a story about Echecrates, a man who kidnapped the virgin oracle and violated her. Because of this, the Delphians passed a law requiring the Pythia to be an elderly woman of fifty, dressed like a virgin to honor the past.
Scholar Martin Litchfield West notes that the Pythia’s practices, such as sitting on a tripod and speaking in a trance, resemble those of spiritual leaders from Central Asia. However, there is no direct evidence of such connections. William Godwin wrote that the tripod had holes, and the Pythia inhaled vapors, causing her body to change: her hair stood on end, her skin changed color, her chest swelled, and her voice seemed to come from beyond human limits.
Organization of the Oracle
Since the first operation of the oracle at the Temple of Delphi, it was believed that the god lived within a laurel tree, his holy plant, and gave oracles for the future with the rustling of the leaves. It was also said that the art of divination was taught to the god by the three winged sisters of Parnassus, the Thriae, when Apollo was grazing his cattle there. The Thriae used to have a Kliromanteion (a type of oracle using lots, or cleromancy) in that area. It is possible that this was the first oracle of Delphi: throwing lots into a container, then pulling them out. The color and shape of the lots had special meaning.
Three oracles operated in Delphi one after another: the chthonion, which used egkoimisi (a process involving sleeping in a holy place to have a revealing dream), the Kliromanteion, and finally the Apollonian oracle, which used the laurel tree. But after the introduction of the cult of Dionysus at Delphi, the god who brought his followers into ecstasy and madness, the Delphic god gave oracles through a woman named Pythia. She fell into a trance under the influence of vapors and fumes coming from an opening in the inner sanctum of the Oracle. Pythia sat on a tall gilded tripod above the opening. In the past, Pythia was a young virgin, but after Echecrates of Thessaly kidnapped and violated a young Pythia in the late 3rd century BC, an older woman over fifty was chosen. She dressed and wore jewelry to look like a young girl. According to tradition, Phemonoe was the first Pythia.
Though little is known about how the priestess was chosen, the Pythia was probably selected, after the death of her predecessor, from a group of priestesses at the temple. These women were all from Delphi and were required to live soberly and have good character. Some were married, but when they became Pythias, they stopped all family duties, marital relations, and personal identity. During the most popular time of the oracle, the Pythia may have been a woman from an influential family, well educated in geography, politics, history, philosophy, and the arts. Later, uneducated peasant women were chosen, which may explain why poetic prophecies in early times were later given only in prose. Often, the priestess's answers were put into hexameter by a priest. The archaeologist John Hale reports:
"The Pythia was sometimes a noble from an aristocratic family, sometimes a peasant, sometimes rich, sometimes poor, sometimes very educated, and sometimes unable to write her own name. It seems that aptitude, not status, made these women eligible to be Pythias and speak for the god."
The job of a priestess, especially the Pythia, was a respected career for Greek women. Priestesses had many freedoms and rewards, such as freedom from taxes, the right to own property and attend public events, a salary and housing provided by the state, a wide range of duties, and often gold crowns.
During the main period of the oracle's popularity, as many as three women served as Pythia, another sign of the triad, with two taking turns giving prophecies and one kept in reserve. Only one day of the month could the priestess be consulted.
Plutarch said that the Pythia's life was shortened by her service to Apollo. The sessions were said to be exhausting. At the end of each period, the Pythia would be like a runner after a race or a dancer after an ecstatic dance, which may have affected her health.
Other officials helped run the oracle besides the Pythia. After 200 BC, there were two priests of Apollo, who oversaw the entire sanctuary. Plutarch, who served as a priest during the late first century and early second century AD, gives the most information about the oracle's organization at that time. Before 200 BC, when the temple was dedicated to Apollo, there was likely only one priest of Apollo. Priests were chosen from Delphi's main citizens and served for life. They also conducted sacrifices at other festivals of Apollo and managed the Pythian Games. Earlier arrangements, before the temple was dedicated to Apollo, are not documented.
Other officials associated with the oracle are less well known. These include the hosioi (holy ones) and the prophētai (prophets). The word "prophet" comes from "prophētēs," meaning "one who foretells." The role of the prophetai is unclear; some say they interpreted the Pythia's prophecies or rephrased them into verse, while others suggest the term referred to any temple officials, including the Pythia. There were five hosioi, whose duties are unknown but may have involved the oracle's operation.
In traditions linked to Apollo, the oracle gave prophecies during the nine warmest months of the year. During winter, Apollo was said to leave his temple, replaced by his divine half-brother Dionysus, whose tomb was also in the temple. It is not known if the Oracle participated in Dionysian rites at the Korykion cave on Mount Parnassus. Plutarch mentions that his friend Clea was both a priestess to Apollo and to the secret rites of Dionysus. Male priests had their own ceremonies for the dying and resurrecting god. Apollo was said to return at the start of spring, on the seventh day of
Temple of Apollo
The ruins of the Temple of Delphi that can be seen today were built in the 4th century BC. This temple was a type of building called a peripteral Doric structure. It was constructed on the remains of an older temple from the 6th century BC, which had been built on a site that originally held a structure from the 7th century BC. This earliest structure was created by architects named Trophonios and Agamedes.
The 6th-century BC temple was named the "Temple of Alcmaeonidae" to honor an Athenian family that paid for its rebuilding after a fire destroyed the previous temple. The new temple had 6 by 15 columns and was a Doric hexastyle building. This temple was damaged by an earthquake in 373 BC. The sculptures on the temple’s pediments were made by Praxias and Androsthenes of Athens. The new temple followed the same 6 by 15 column pattern as the earlier one. Inside the temple was the adyton, a sacred space that was the center of the Delphic oracle and the place where the Pythia, the oracle’s priestess, worked.
The temple had the phrase "Know thyself," one of the Delphic maxims, carved into it. Some modern Greek writers suggest other maxims were also carved there. These maxims were said to have been given by Apollo, the god of the oracle, and by the Seven Sages of Greece. The phrase "Know thyself" may also have been linked to other famous philosophers.
The temple remained standing until AD 390, when the Roman emperor Theodosius I destroyed it to stop the practice of paganism. He removed most of the statues and artwork from the site.
Scientific explanations
Many scientists have tried to explain how the Pythia, the priestess at Delphi, received her visions. Plutarch, who was a high priest at Delphi for many years, wrote that the oracle’s powers seemed connected to vapors from the Kerna spring, which flowed under the temple. Some people think these vapors might have been gases that could cause hallucinations.
Recent studies of the land under Delphi suggest that gas emissions from a crack in the earth might have influenced the Delphic Oracle. Some researchers believe ethylene gas could have caused the Pythia’s trance-like state. This idea is supported by the fact that ethylene is used as an anesthetic, and it has a smell similar to what Plutarch described. Ethylene has been found in the Castallian spring, though the spring is now used for town water. However, other scientists argue that ethylene is not likely, and that gases like methane, carbon dioxide, or hydrogen sulfide might have been involved. They suggest the gas could have come from a crack caused by an earthquake.
Oleander, a plant, has also been studied as a possible cause of the Pythia’s symptoms. The Pythia chewed its leaves and inhaled its smoke during rituals. Oleander contains toxic substances that can cause symptoms similar to epilepsy, which was called the “sacred disease.” This might have made the Pythia appear to be possessed by Apollo’s spirit. Fumes from oleander could have come from a fire pit in an underground chamber, which archaeologists have found under the temple. This idea matches evidence from excavations and explains the mention of a “chasm” and “spirit” in ancient texts.
In winter, cooler weather might have reduced gas emissions from the underground chamber. This could explain why no summer gods were honored in winter. The gas might also explain why the Pythia could only enter the chamber once a month, to avoid dangerous exposure and to ensure the right gas concentration.
In 1892, French archaeologists led by Théophile Homolle excavated Delphi but found no cracks or sources of gas. In 1904, Adolphe Paul Oppé argued that ancient stories about a chasm and gas were false, claiming they were made up by travelers. Many scholars, including Frederick Poulson and Joseph Fontenrose, agreed with Oppé, believing the gas stories were incorrect. Pierre Amandry, a French scholar, also said gas emissions were impossible in Delphi’s volcanic area. However, neither Oppé nor Amandry were geologists, and no geologists had studied the site at that time.
Later, re-examination of the French excavations showed that the original findings might have been wrong. A 2007 study by Broad found a French photo showing a pool and small cracks in the temple, which could have let gas enter. In the 1980s, a team of scientists, including geologist Jelle Zeilinga de Boer, studied Delphi. They found two major fault lines under the temple: the Kerna fault (north-south) and the Delphic fault (east-west). These faults cross near the adyton, the original oracle chamber, which was destroyed by shifting earth. Evidence suggests the chamber was built over these faults, allowing gas to rise through cracks.
The team also found underground passages, water drains, and travertine, a type of rock formed by water moving through limestone. Deep under Delphi, they found a layer of bitumen rich in hydrocarbons. Earthquakes heat this layer, causing gases to rise through cracks in the rock.
There is disagreement about how the adyton was arranged, but it seems unique compared to other Greek temples. The small chamber was below the main temple floor, possibly built over the faults. This design allowed vapors to gather in a space that could cause trance-like effects. Plutarch wrote that the temple smelled sweet when the “deity” was present, like the scent of expensive perfumes.
Zeilinga de Boer suggested ethylene gas, which has a sweet smell, might have been the cause. Toxicologist Henry R. Spiller noted that inhaling small amounts of ethylene can cause trances or euphoria, while larger amounts can cause confusion or loss of coordination. Anesthesiologist Isabella Coler Herb found that ethylene doses up to 20% could make people sit up, answer questions, and lose some awareness, but not remember the experience afterward. Higher doses caused loss of limb control.