Excalibur is the legendary sword of King Arthur, believed to have magical powers or to symbolize the right to rule Britain. The earliest known written record of Excalibur appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae. The idea of Excalibur as the "sword in the stone," used to prove Arthur's royal heritage, became a common theme in stories about Arthur's early life, starting with Robert de Boron's Merlin. In later traditions, such as the Post-Vulgate Cycle, a different sword is given to young Arthur by the Lady of the Lake. However, in Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, both swords are called Excalibur. Other swords and weapons similar to Excalibur also appear in Arthurian stories and other legends.
Forms and etymology
The name Excalibur comes from the Welsh word Caledfwlch, which also appears in Breton as Kaledvoulc'h and in Middle Cornish as Calesvol. This name is made up of two parts: "caled," meaning "hard," and "bwlch," meaning "breach" or "cleft." Caledfwlch is found in early Welsh stories, such as the prose tale Culhwch and Olwen from the 11th to 12th century. Later, the name was used in Welsh versions of stories from other cultures, like the Brut chronicles, which were based on Geoffrey of Monmouth’s work. Some people think Excalibur is related to the Irish name Caladbolg, a sword from Irish myths. However, scholars Rachel Bromwich and D. Simon Evans believe this connection is unlikely. Instead, they suggest both names might have developed independently as general terms for a sword. In the Middle Cornish play Beunans Ke from the late 15th to early 16th century, Arthur’s sword is called Calesvol, which is a direct Middle Cornish version of the Welsh Caledfwlch. It is unclear whether the name was borrowed from Welsh or if it represents an older, shared name for Arthur’s sword among the Britons.
In his Latin work Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136), the Welsh writer Geoffrey of Monmouth changed the name of Arthur’s sword to Caliburnus. This may have been influenced by the Medieval Latin spelling "calibs," which comes from the Greek word "chályps," meaning "steel." Most Celtic scholars believe Geoffrey’s version of the name came from an older Welsh text where "bwlch" (Old Welsh "bulc[h]") had not yet changed to "fwlch" (Middle Welsh "vwlch" or "uwlch"). In the Old French chronicle Estoire des Engleis (1134–1140), Geoffrey Gaimar wrote about Arthur and his sword: "this Constantine was the nephew of Arthur, who had the sword Caliburc." In Wace’s Roman de Brut (c. 1150–1155), the sword was called by many names, including Caliburn, Calabrum, Callibourc, and Escalibor. Later medieval stories used other spellings, such as Calibourch, Calibourn, Calibourne, Caliburc, Escaliber, Escalibur, Excalibor, and finally the well-known Excalibur.
Legend
In stories about King Arthur, there are different accounts of how he pulled the sword Excalibur from the stone. In a French poem written around 1200 by Robert de Boron, the first known story to mention the "sword in the stone" idea, Arthur became king by pulling a sword from an anvil on top of a stone that appeared in a churchyard on Christmas Eve. This act, as predicted by the wizard Merlin, could only be done by the true king, meaning the rightful heir to Uther Pendragon. Thomas Malory, in his 15th-century book Le Morte d'Arthur, wrote that "whoever pulls this sword from the stone and anvil is the true king of England." The scene is described by different authors as either in London or in the land of Logres, which is sometimes linked to London. This story may have been inspired by a miracle involving the 11th-century bishop Wulfstan of Worcester.
When many nobles tried and failed to pull the sword, the teenage Arthur, who had believed he was the son of Ector and had come as a squire to his foster brother Kay, succeeded without effort. Arthur first pulled the sword by accident, unaware of the contest. He then returned the sword to the anvil on the stone and later repeated the act publicly when Merlin revealed Arthur’s true parentage.
The sword’s name, Excalibur, was first clearly stated in the Prose Merlin, part of a 13th-century French story cycle called the Vulgate Cycle. Later, in the cycle’s final story, Vulgate Mort Artu, when Arthur was dying, he asked his knight Griflet to throw Excalibur into a lake. After two failed attempts to refuse, Griflet obeyed. A woman’s hand emerged from the lake to catch the sword, and Morgan appeared in a boat to take Arthur to Avalon. This scene later became associated with Bedivere (or Yvain) in English stories instead of Griflet.
In later versions, such as the Post-Vulgate Cycle, the sword drawn from the stone was not named Excalibur. Instead, Arthur broke it during a duel with King Pellinore early in his reign. On Merlin’s advice, Arthur then received Excalibur from a Lady of the Lake, in exchange for a future favor. In the Post-Vulgate Mort Artu, Griflet later threw this sword into a lake at Camlann (or Salisbury Plain) as described in the earlier story. Malory included both versions in his famous Le Morte d'Arthur, naming both swords Excalibur.
In Welsh stories, Arthur’s sword is called Caledfwlch. In Culhwch and Olwen, it is one of Arthur’s most valuable items and used by his warrior Llenlleawg to kill the Irish king Diwrnach. In The Dream of Rhonabwy, the sword is described as having two chimeras on its golden hilt, with flames glowing from their mouths.
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia was the first non-Welsh text to mention the sword. He called it Caliburnus, a Latin version of Caledfwlch. As Geoffrey’s work spread, the name evolved into Excalibur. The Vulgate and Post-Vulgate cycles expanded the sword’s role, including the Prose Merlin. The Post-Vulgate version omitted the original Merlin continuation and added a new story about Arthur’s early life and Excalibur’s origin.
In Chrétien de Troyes’ Perceval, Arthur’s nephew Gawain carried Excalibur, described as "the finest sword that there was, which sliced through iron as through wood." This name was later linked to the Hebrew word "cuts iron, steel, and wood." Thomas Malory wrote that Excalibur meant "cut steel," and he described the sword’s blade as so bright it blinded enemies during Arthur’s first combat.
In the Post-Vulgate version, Excalibur’s scabbard had magical powers: wounds suffered while wearing it did not bleed. Merlin warned Arthur that the scabbard was a greater treasure than the sword itself. However, Arthur’s half-sister Morgan le Fay stole the scabbard in revenge for her lover’s death. She later threw it into a lake, leaving Arthur without its protection during his final battle. In Malory’s version, the scabbard was never found again, but in the Post-Vulgate, it was recovered by a fay named Marsique and briefly given to Gawain.
In some French stories, Excalibur was also used by Gawain, including in Vulgate Lancelot. The Prose Merlin uniquely describes Gawain killing the Roman leader Lucius with Excalibur. Most versions, however, say Excalibur belonged only to Arthur. In the English Alliterative Morte Arthure and a Welsh text, Arthur used Excalibur to kill his son Mordred (and Lucius in one version). In the Iberian romance Florambel de Lucea, Morgan gave Excalibur (called Esclariber) to the hero. Another Iberian story, Tirant lo Blanch, features Arthur, brought back to life by Morgan, wandering in a later time.
Connections and analogues
In a later Arthurian story about Galahad, the challenge of drawing a sword from a stone appears. This act shows that Galahad is destined to find the Holy Grail, as predicted by Merlin. The powerful but cursed sword, called the Adventurous Sword, comes from Avalon. In the Post-Vulgate and Malory versions, the sword is first drawn during a contest but then stolen by Balin. Balin uses it until his death, when he kills his own brother with it. Later, Galahad pulls the sword from a stone floating on a river near Camelot. Eventually, Lancelot uses the sword to wound his former friend Gawain in their final duel. In another story, Perlesvaus, Lancelot pulls a spear from a stone pedestal. In the Post-Vulgate Merlin and Malory, Morgan creates copies of Excalibur and its scabbard.
In Welsh mythology, the Dyrnwyn, or "White-Hilt," is one of the Thirteen Treasures of Britain. It belongs to Rhydderch Hael, a generous man from Welsh stories. When a worthy or noble person draws the sword, its blade glows with fire. Rhydderch was always willing to give the sword to others, but those who received it often refused it after learning about its special powers. Similar powerful weapons appear in other myths. In Irish stories, Caladbolg is the sword of Fergus mac Róich, known for its strength. It was carried by many great Irish heroes. The name "Caladbolg" also means "hard cleft" and is used in ancient texts to describe great swords. Another Irish sword, Claíomh Solais, or "Sword of Light," appears in folktales. In some versions of the story of Sigurd, the Norse hero Sigmund draws the sword Gram from a tree where it is stuck by the god Odin. A real ancient sword similar to the "Sword in the Stone" exists today. It is kept in the Chapel of Saint Galgano in Italy and is linked to a 12th-century legend about the saint.
Many weapons are connected to Arthur. In the Alliterative Morte Arthure, Clarent is the royal sword used for ceremonies and knighting, not for battle. Guinevere steals it for Mordred, who later kills Arthur with it. In the Vulgate Lancelot, Lancelot borrows a sword called Sequence from Arthur. In the Vulgate Merlin, Arthur takes Marmiadoise, a powerful sword once owned by Hercules, from King Rions. Marmiadoise’s abilities, like causing unhealable wounds, are so strong that Arthur gives Excalibur to Gawain.
Early Welsh stories mention two weapons belonging to Arthur: a dagger named Carnwennan and a spear named Rhongomyniad. Carnwennan, or "little white-hilt," is first described in Culhwch and Olwen, where Arthur uses it to cut the witch Orddu in half. Rhongomyniad, or "spear striker," is briefly mentioned in Culhwch but appears as "Ron" in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia. Geoffrey also names Arthur’s shield as Pridwen, while Culhwch calls Arthur’s ship Prydwen and his shield Wynebgwrthucher.
Excalibur as a relic
Historically, a sword known as Excalibur (also called Caliburn) was supposedly found during the digging up of a grave believed to belong to King Arthur at Glastonbury Abbey in 1191. On March 6, 1191, after the Treaty of Messina, either this sword or another claimed Excalibur was given as a gift by King Richard I of England (also known as Richard the Lionheart) to his ally, Tancred, King of Sicily. This act was part of a series of meaningful actions by the Anglo-Norman rulers that connected their own symbols, such as their crowns, to those of King Arthur, including their association of the crown of King Arthur with the crown they took from the Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd.