The Essenes were a spiritual Jewish group that lived during the time of the Second Temple, from around 200 BCE to 100 CE. They were known for their strict beliefs and practices, which set them apart from other Jewish groups of the time.
Most scholars believe the Essenes formed as a separate group during the time of Jonathan Apphus, a Jewish leader. They disagreed with some Jewish laws and believed Jonathan’s role as high priest was not rightful. It is likely they separated from the Zadokite priests, a religious family. The Essenes followed the teachings of the Torah and believed their early leader, called the Teacher of Righteousness, was a true high priest. They valued strict religious rules, placed priests (called the Sons of Zadok) above others, and focused on staying ritually clean. They also believed in a world divided between good and evil.
Ancient Jewish writers Josephus and Philo wrote that there were about 4,000 Essenes living in different areas of Judaea. A Roman writer, Pliny the Elder, said they lived near Ein Gedi on the western side of the Dead Sea. Pliny noted the Essenes did not own money, had existed for many generations, and their priestly class (called "contemplatives") did not marry. Josephus, who claimed to know the Essenes personally, described them in his writings as one of three main Jewish groups, along with the Pharisees and Sadducees. He wrote they avoided anger, did not own personal property, shared everything, and followed strict Sabbath rules. They also bathed in water every morning, ate meals together after prayer, studied religious texts, and kept secrets about sacred writings.
The Essenes are best known today because of the Dead Sea Scrolls, a large collection of religious texts found at Qumran, a site near the Dead Sea. These scrolls include many copies of parts of the Hebrew Bible, as well as other religious writings like the Community Rule, the Damascus Document, and the War Scroll.
Most historians think the Essenes disappeared after the First Jewish–Roman War, which also destroyed the settlement at Qumran. However, there is no clear proof of their complete disappearance, and some believe their ideas may have influenced later religious groups, such as Mandaeism and Christianity.
Etymology
Josephus wrote about the Essenes in two of his main works, The Jewish War (2.119, 158, 160) and Antiquities of the Jews (13.171–2). Some copies of these texts use the word "Essaion," which means "holding the Essenes in honor" or "a certain Essene named Manaemus." In other parts of his writings, Josephus used the term "Essaios," which is often thought to refer to the Essenes. Examples include "Judas of the Essaios race" and "Simon of the Essaios race." Josephus identified the Essenes as one of the three major Jewish groups during that time.
Philo used the Greek form "Essaioi" to describe the group. He noted that this Greek version of the name was not exact, as the original name, according to Philo, meant "holiness." Pliny, in his Latin writings, used the term "Esseni."
Gabriele Boccaccini suggests that no clear origin for the name "Essene" has been found. However, the term may have referred to a larger group in Judea that included the Qumran community.
Before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, scholars thought the name "Essene" came from a Hebrew phrase, ʻosey haTorah, meaning "doers of the Torah." This idea was supported by some Dead Sea Scrolls, which used similar language. This is the only etymology from before 1947 confirmed by the scrolls and is now widely accepted. Scholars like VanderKam and Goranson have discussed variations in spelling, such as "Ossaioi" and "Essaioi."
In medieval Hebrew texts, such as Sefer Yosippon, the term "Hassidim" (meaning "the Pious") was used instead of "Essenes." This Hebrew name is not the origin of "Essaioi" or "Esseni," but the Aramaic term "Hesi'im" from Eastern Aramaic texts has been suggested as a possible connection. Other theories propose that "Essene" came from the Hebrew word ḥiṣonim (meaning "outside"), used in the Mishnah to describe certain groups. Another idea is that the name was borrowed from a group of followers of the goddess Artemis in Anatolia, whose clothing and behavior resembled those of the Essenes.
In The Jewish War, Chapter 8, Flavius Josephus wrote:
(119) There are three major philosophical groups among the Jews. The first is the Pharisees, the second is the Sadducees, and the third is the Essenes, who claim to follow stricter rules. These people are born Jewish and show more unity and care for one another than other groups.
Location
According to Josephus, the Essenes lived "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town." Philo described "more than four thousand" Essaioi living in "Palestine and Syria," specifically "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members."
Pliny located them "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast… [above] the town of Engeda."
Some modern scholars and archaeologists believe that the Essenes lived in the settlement at Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea. They support this idea by citing Pliny the Elder and suggest that the Dead Sea Scrolls were created by the Essenes. This theory, although not yet proven for sure, is the most widely accepted among scholars and influences public understanding of the Essenes.
In the same area along the Dead Sea shore, there are also the sites of Ein Feshkha and Ain el-Ghuweir, which are linked to the Qumran settlement. In particular, the cemetery at Ain el-Ghuweir is somewhat similar to those at Qumran, although it also includes burials of women and children.
The way people were buried at Qumran cemeteries is different from burial practices found elsewhere in Israel.
This suggests "that the residents of Qumran were not families and that it was a community cemetery."
Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs
The writings of Josephus and Philo describe the Essenes as a group that lived together in a shared community, similar to later Christian monastic groups. Some Essene groups did not marry or have children, but Josephus also mentions a different group that married after a three-year trial period. According to Josephus, the Essenes practiced shared ownership of property, chose a leader to guide the group, and followed the leader’s instructions. They did not swear oaths or sacrifice animals. They avoided anger and used weapons only for protection from thieves. They did not own slaves, helped each other, and did not trade goods because of their shared ownership. Josephus and Philo wrote about their meetings, meals, and religious events. Scholars believe the Essenes supported equal treatment of people and shared resources.
After a three-year trial period, new Essenes took an oath promising to honor God, act righteously, live morally, follow their group’s rules, and protect their religious texts. They believed the soul would return to the body after death. They used water rituals for purification, which they collected from rain. According to the Community Rule, repentance was needed before purification.
Purification rituals were common in Judea during this time, not only among the Essenes. Ritual baths, called mikvehs, were found near synagogues and are still used today. The Essenes considered cleanliness very important, avoiding defecation on the Sabbath.
Epiphanius, a 4th-century Church Father, described two groups within the Essenes: the Nasaraeans and the Ossaeans. The Nasaraeans were Jews who followed Jewish traditions but did not eat meat or sacrifice animals. They believed the laws of Moses were not the same as those in the main Jewish texts. The Ossaeans were also Jews who rejected some of Moses’ writings, causing divisions among groups.
Little is known about the Essenes’ religious texts. Their manuscripts do not include the book of Esther, possibly because they opposed mixed marriages and different calendars. The Essenes were unusual for their time because they rejected slavery, believing all people were equal.
Involvement in the First Jewish–Roman War
At the beginning of the First Jewish–Roman War in 66 CE, as people expected Roman forces to move forward, control over parts of western Judea was given to John the Essene (or Essaean). He was put in charge of the region called Thamna, which included the areas of Lydda, Joppa, and Emmaus.
Scholarly discussion
Josephus and Philo describe the Essenes in detail. Most scholars believe the community at Qumran, which likely created the Dead Sea Scrolls, was a group that split off from the Essenes. However, some scholars, like Norman Golb, argue that the research on Qumran’s documents and ruins, led by Father Roland de Vaux from the École Biblique et Archéologique de Jérusalem, did not use proper scientific methods and led to incorrect conclusions that became widely accepted. Golb points out that the large number of documents includes many different writing styles, and the ruins appear to have been a fortress used as a military base for a long time, including during the 1st century. This suggests the Essenes may not have lived there. Additionally, a large graveyard found near Qumran in 1870 contained over 1,200 tombs, including those of women and children. Pliny wrote that the Essenes living near the Dead Sea had no women and did not have children, which contradicts the graveyard findings. Golb’s book criticizes de Vaux’s quick conclusions and their acceptance by scholars. He suggests the documents may have come from libraries in Jerusalem, hidden in the desert to protect them from Roman attacks. Other scholars disagree, noting that Josephus described some Essenes as allowing marriage.
Another topic is the relationship between the Essaioi and Philo’s Therapeutae and Therapeutrides. Philo described the Therapeutae as a group within the Essaioi who focused on spiritual reflection, while others in the Essaioi lived more active lives.
Some theories suggest the Essenes began when a Jewish high priest, called the Teacher of Righteousness by the Essenes, was replaced by Jonathan, who was not of the Zadokite lineage and was called the "man of lies" or "false priest." Some scholars believe the Teacher of Righteousness was not only the leader of the Essenes at Qumran but also the original Messianic figure about 150 years before the time of the Gospels. Fred Gladstone Bratton notes that the Teacher of Righteousness in the Scrolls may be seen as a model for Jesus, as both spoke of a New Covenant, taught similar messages, were seen as saviors, and were condemned and killed by opposing groups. However, it is unknown if Jesus was an Essene, though some scholars think he may have been influenced by them.
Lawrence Schiffman argues that the Qumran community may be better described as Sadducean rather than Essene, because their religious beliefs align with Sadducean traditions.
Connection to other religious traditions
The Haran Gawaita refers to the Mandaeans who left Jerusalem as Nasoraeans, a term meaning "guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge." Scholars like Kurt Rudolph, Rudolf Macúch, Mark Lidzbarski, and Ethel S. Drower link the Mandaeans to the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius, a group within the Essenes, as noted by Joseph Lightfoot. Epiphanius wrote that the Nasaraeans existed before Jesus. Some scholars question this claim, but others believe the Nasaraeans originated before the time of Christ.
Early religious ideas and terms appear in the Dead Sea Scrolls. In Mandaeism, the name "Yardena" has been used for baptismal water. The Mandaean name "Mara ḏ-Rabuta" (meaning "Lord of Greatness," one of the names for their god Hayyi Rabbi) is found in the Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. Another early term used by Mandaeans is "bhiria zidqa," meaning "elect of righteousness" or "the chosen righteous," which also appears in the Book of Enoch and the Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe they are the true group of "Sons of Light," a term used by the Essenes. Mandaean texts state they are descendants of John the Baptist’s original disciples in Jerusalem. Like the Essenes, Mandaeans must not share the names of angels with non-Mandaeans. Essene and Mandaean graves are aligned north–south, so the deceased would face north if standing upright. Mandaeans also have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian and are pacifists, like the Essenes.
The Mandaean term for their place of worship, "bit manda" (or "beth manda"), is described as "the Great building of Truth" or "house of Perfection" in texts like the Qulasta, Ginza Rabba, and the Mandaean Book of John. Similar phrases appear in Essene texts from Qumran, such as the Community Rule, which mentions "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel."
The Essenes and Christians share many religious practices. The Dead Sea Scrolls describe a meal of bread and wine that the messiah would institute. Both groups believed in the end of the world and judgment. The New Testament may reference writings from the Qumran community. For example, Luke 1:31-35 mentions a child named Jesus who would be called "the son of the Most High" and "the son of God," which echoes a text from 4Q246 that describes a similar figure.
Other similarities include strong devotion to their faith, even to the point of martyrdom, communal prayer, self-denial, and a belief in living in a sinful world. John the Baptist is sometimes compared to the Essenes because of shared practices, suggesting he may have been trained by them.
In the early church, a book called the Odes of Solomon was written. Its author may have been an Essene who converted to Christianity. The book mixes Essene mystical ideas with Christian beliefs.
Both the Essenes and Christians practiced voluntary celibacy and banned divorce. They also used "light" and "darkness" to represent good and evil. Some scholars suggest the Essenes believed in a Messiah who would suffer, based on a text called 4Q285. However, interpretations of this text are unclear. Some think the Messiah would be killed, while others believe he would defeat Israel’s enemies in a final battle.
Both groups practiced water immersion, but the Essenes did it regularly, not just once.
In the 17th century, some writers linked the Essenes to the Carmelites, claiming they were early Christians. This idea was debated between the Carmelites and their rivals, the Bollandists.
The Magharians or Magarites (Arabic: Al-Maghariyyah, "people of the caves") were a Jewish group founded in the 1st century BCE, according to Jacob Qirqisani. Some scholars, like Abraham Harkavy, believe the Magharians were the Essenes. This connection is based on their association with Philo, a Jewish philosopher known for his interest in the Essenes.