The Albigensian Crusade (French: Croisade des Albigeois), also called the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229), was a military and religious campaign started by Pope Innocent III to stop the Cathar religion in Languedoc, now part of southern France. The French king and nobles led the campaign, which became a political struggle. The Crusade greatly reduced the number of Cathars and brought the County of Toulouse under French control. It also weakened the unique culture of Languedoc.
The Cathars came from a religious group in the Balkans called the Bogomils. They believed in returning to simple, pure Christian teachings, such as living without wealth and focusing on spiritual matters. They rejected the physical world, which led to conflicts with the Catholic Church, whose leaders were often seen as living in luxury. Cathar beliefs, which were similar to Gnosticism, taught that the physical world was evil. This idea clashed with Catholic teachings about Jesus becoming human and the importance of religious rituals. These differences caused the Catholic Church to accuse Cathars of heresy. The name "Albigensians" came from the city of Albi, where many Cathars lived.
Between 1022 and 1163, eight church meetings condemned the Cathars. The last meeting, held in Tours, ordered that all Cathars be imprisoned and their property taken. In 1179, another church meeting repeated these condemnations. Pope Innocent III tried to stop Catharism through diplomacy but had little success. After the murder of his messenger, Pierre de Castelnau, in 1208, and suspicion that Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, was involved, Innocent III declared a Crusade against the Cathars. He offered land to French nobles who would fight the Cathars.
From 1209 to 1215, the Crusaders captured Cathar lands and weakened their movement. Between 1215 and 1225, Toulouse’s leaders rebelled, regaining some areas. A new Crusade recaptured the land and forced Catharism to hide by 1244. The Albigensian Crusade helped create the Dominican Order and the Medieval Inquisition. The Dominicans spread Catholic teachings in towns and villages to stop heresies, while the Inquisition investigated people accused of spreading false beliefs. By the mid-14th century, Catharism had disappeared. Some historians believe the Crusade was an act of genocide.
Cathar beliefs and practices
The word "Cathar" comes from the Greek word katharos, which means "clean" or "pure." Their beliefs were partly based on earlier religious ideas called Gnosticism. Cathars believed in two equal and powerful spiritual forces: God, who represented good, and the demiurge, who represented evil. They thought the physical world was evil and was created by the demiurge, whom they called Rex Mundi (Latin for "King of the World"). Rex Mundi included everything physical, chaotic, and powerful.
Cathars believed God was not connected to the physical world. They saw Him as a pure spiritual being, the source of love, order, and peace. They thought Jesus was an angel with only a temporary, invisible body. Stories about Jesus in the Bible were meant to be understood as symbolic. Cathars taught that humans did not originally have souls. They believed that the evil demiurge, or Satan in some views, either gave people souls or used souls from fallen angels. In another view, God gave humans souls out of pity.
Some Cathars believed souls could move from one body to another after death. They considered sexual activity a serious sin because it either created new souls in the evil world or kept souls trapped in physical bodies. Cathars did not obey civil laws, as they believed the physical world was ruled by Rex Mundi. They refused to take oaths of loyalty or join the military. They also avoided killing animals or eating meat.
Cathars rejected the Catholic Church’s priests, calling them unworthy and corrupt. They believed anyone, not just priests, could perform religious duties like giving blessings or hearing confessions. However, some Cathars were chosen to be bishops or deacons. They did not believe in the idea that Jesus physically exists in the Eucharist or that souls go to Purgatory after death.
Cathar meetings were simple. People would recite the Lord’s Prayer, confess their sins, and share a meal together. They also had special rituals, such as the consolamentum, a ceremony replacing Catholic baptism. Instead of using water, the consolamentum involved placing hands on someone’s head. Cathars saw water as unclean because it was polluted by the earth, so they avoided using it in their rituals.
The consolamentum was usually given near death, as Cathars believed it helped remove past sins and increased the chance of salvation. After receiving it, a person was called perfectus, meaning "perfect." A perfectus soul could escape the cycle of death and rebirth and reach salvation.
Before becoming perfectus, many Cathars were encouraged but not required to avoid sex and meat. Once they received the consolamentum, these rules became strict. Some perfectus practiced a ritual called the endura, where they fasted and drank only cold water, sometimes leading to death. This was usually done by those already near death.
Some Church members claimed that if a Cathar receiving the consolamentum showed signs of recovery, others might smother them to ensure their entry into Heaven. While this happened occasionally, there is little proof it was common.
Cathar bishops were chosen from among the perfectus. If someone who received the consolamentum committed a serious sin, the ceremony had to be repeated. If a bishop who gave the consolamentum sinned, everyone he had blessed would need to receive it again.
Background
Cathar beliefs were most successful in the Languedoc, a region later known as Occitania and eventually part of France. In the Languedoc, political power and land ownership were shared among many local leaders and their families. Before the Crusade, there was little fighting in the area. Regions to the north were divided into separate areas, but most recognized themselves as part of the Kingdom of France. They spoke different dialects, but these were generally considered part of the French language.
In contrast, people in the Languedoc did not see themselves as French. Their language, Occitan, could not be understood by French speakers and was more similar to Catalan. The County of Toulouse, the strongest political group in the region, was a part of the Angevin Empire, which controlled the Duchy of Aquitaine in the west. In areas south and east of Toulouse, the Crown of Aragon and the Principality of Catalonia had more influence than the French kingdom or northern Languedoc.
By the early 1200s, towns in the Languedoc were growing rapidly. Toulouse was the largest city, with a population of 30,000–35,000 people by 1209. It was wealthier and more influential than other places in the region. The Count of Toulouse lived in a castle within the city but had little real control over it. Smaller towns were built with strong walls and on high ground, often near cliffs. These towns were called "castrum," meaning "fortified place." Many towns in the Languedoc were built near or on older Roman settlements. For example, Carcassonne was first built as a Roman fortification and later had its walls strengthened.
The Languedoc was more urbanized than the rural north, which helped different groups mix and live together. This created an environment where religious tolerance was more common. Jews in the Languedoc faced little discrimination, as did religious groups that appeared in the area during the 12th century. Muslims were not treated as kindly, but their writings and knowledge were respected.
Historian Joseph Strayer described the differences between the North and South of what is now France as follows:
At the time, the North and South were two very different regions, as different as France and Spain are today. People in each area disliked and distrusted those from the other. Northerners thought southerners were undisciplined, too focused on luxury, and influenced by people like merchants and lawyers. Southerners believed northerners were rude, uncultured, and aggressive. If a war had broken out between them, it would have been long and bitter.
In the 12th century, some preachers taught that individuals should have a direct relationship with God, without relying on the church. Henry of Lausanne criticized priests and called for church reform. He had many followers. His teachings focused on ending corruption in the church, but there is no evidence he supported Cathar beliefs about two opposing forces in the world. Arnold of Brescia, leader of the Arnoldists, was executed in 1155, and his body was burned and thrown into the Tiber River. A chronicler said this was done "for fear" that people might honor his ashes as a martyr. The Waldensians, followers of Peter Waldo, also faced burnings and attacks.
These groups shared some ideas with the Cathars, like opposing the church and rejecting certain religious practices. However, they did not believe in Cathar ideas about two opposing forces. Some scholars think the Cathars came from the Bogomils of Bulgaria, part of a long tradition of beliefs that included both groups. Others disagree. After the First Crusade, Latin settlers in Constantinople, part of the Byzantine Empire, created a group that believed in dualism. This group may have provided translations of Bogomil texts to Western Europe, helping spread dualist ideas.
By the 12th century, groups like the Waldensians and Cathars were growing in urban areas of western Mediterranean France, one of Europe’s most developed regions. Cathars became a popular movement in the Languedoc and spread to other areas, such as Lombardy by the 1170s. Some saw the Cathar movement as a response to the corruption and worldly behavior of the clergy. Others saw it as a reaction to the power of the pope.
The Cathar movement sometimes shared ideas with Waldensianism, but the two were different. Waldensians opposed the Catholic church and emphasized poverty and simplicity, but they accepted most Catholic teachings. Both groups faced persecution, but the church focused more on Catharism, which was more radical and had more followers.
In 1163, four Cathars and a girl from Flanders were burned in Cologne after refusing to change their beliefs. Burning people for heresy was rare before this, and sometimes happened for political reasons rather than religious ones. After this event, such burnings became more common. Connections remained between older dualist groups in the Byzantine Empire and new ones in Western Europe. People from the eastern groups helped strengthen dualist beliefs in the West.
Catharism spread widely, but it was most successful in the Languedoc. Cathars had little presence in England, and communities in France and Germany did not last long. The movement was strongest in the Languedoc, where they were known as Albigensians because of their link to the city of Albi. A church council near Albi in 1176 declared Cathar beliefs heretical, a decision repeated at the Third Lateran Council in 1179.
Many reasons have been given for the Cathar movement’s success in the Languedoc. One common explanation is the corruption and poor quality of the clergy, who were often greedy, poorly educated, and appointed by non-clergy. Some argue that similar stories
Military campaigns
By mid-1209, about 10,000 Crusaders gathered in Lyon before moving south. Many stayed for no more than 40 days before being replaced. Many came from Northern France, and some volunteered from England and Austria. It was unclear who would lead the crusade. In early 1209, Philip II learned of an anti-French alliance between King John and Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV, both of whom controlled parts of the Languedoc. This made Philip II avoid joining the crusade. He refused to lead the campaign but promised to send soldiers, ensuring he could influence any political decisions after the conflict. Papal legate Arnaud Amalric, Abbott of the Cistercian monastery Cîteaux Abbey, took command of the mission.
As the Crusaders gathered, Raymond tried to make a deal with his nephew and vassal, Raymond Roger Trencavel, viscount of Béziers and Carcassonne, for a united defense. Raymond Roger refused. Raymond decided to work with the Crusaders. Amalric strongly opposed this, but at Raymond’s request, Pope Innocent appointed a new legate, Milo, secretly ordering Milo to follow Amalric’s instructions. On 18 June 1209, Raymond declared he was sorry for his actions. Milo whipped him and said he was now in full agreement with the Church. The next day, Raymond took the Cross, showing his loyalty to the crusade and promising to help. With Raymond united with the Church, his lands could not be attacked. The Crusaders then focused on Raymond Roger’s lands, targeting Cathar communities near Albi and Carcassonne. They left Lyon on 24 June and reached Montpellier on 20 July.
Raymond Roger was not a Cathar but allowed the group to live in his area. Many Cathars lived there, including his sister, who became a Cathar leader. Raymond Roger tried to negotiate with the Crusaders, claiming he was loyal to the Church and not responsible for the spread of heresy because he was young (24 years old). The Crusaders refused his peace offer. They first attacked Béziers, a city with many Cathars. Raymond Roger initially promised to defend it but fled to Carcassonne to prepare defenses. Around the same time, another Crusader army led by the Archbishop of Bordeaux captured Casseneuil and burned some accused heretics.
The Crusaders captured the village of Servian and then arrived at Béziers on 21 July 1209. Under Amalric’s command, they began besieging the city, asking Catholics to leave and demanding Cathars surrender. Neither group obeyed. The city fell the next day after a failed attack. The entire population was killed, and the city was burned. It was later claimed that Amalric said, “Kill them all! God will know his own,” when asked how to tell Cathars from Catholics. Historian Strayer doubts Amalric said this but says the statement reflects the Crusaders’ actions, as nearly everyone in the town was killed.
Amalric and Milo wrote to the Pope, claiming the Crusaders killed almost 20,000 people. Strayer believes this number is too high but notes that the letter showed no regret for the massacre, even for clergy killed at their altar. News of the event spread quickly, leading many towns, like Narbonne, to surrender without fighting. Others evacuated. The Crusaders faced no resistance as they moved toward Carcassonne.
After the Béziers massacre, the next major target was Carcassonne, a city with many Cathars. The city was well-defended but had many refugees. The Crusaders traveled 45 miles from Béziers to Carcassonne in six days, arriving on 1 August 1209. The siege lasted only a few days. By 7 August, the Crusaders cut off the city’s water supply. Raymond Roger tried to negotiate but was captured during a truce. Carcassonne surrendered on 15 August.
The people were not killed but forced to leave the city. Some sources say they were naked, while others say they wore simple clothing. The Crusaders looted the city and shared the spoils. Raymond Roger died months later, likely from illness, though some believed he was killed.
Simon de Montfort, a French nobleman, was then named leader of the Crusader army and given control of Carcassonne, Albi, and Béziers. After Carcassonne fell, other towns surrendered without fighting, including Albi, Castelnaudary, Castres, Fanjeaux, Limoux, Lombers, and Montréal.
The next major battle was at Lastours and the nearby castle of Cabaret. In December 1209, Pierre Roger de Cabaret repelled an attack. Fighting stopped for the winter due to harsh weather and a small number of soldiers. Simon focused on holding the land he had already captured. Fresh Crusaders arrived in March 1210, and Bram was captured after a short siege.
In June 1210, the well-fortified city of Minerve was besieged. The city was not strategically important, but many Cathar leaders were there. Simon attacked because the city’s geography made a direct assault difficult. He bombarded the city and destroyed its main well. By 22 July, the city surrendered due to a lack of water. Simon wanted to treat the people kindly but was pressured by Amalric to punish the Cathars. Soldiers and Catholics were allowed to leave, as were non-leader Cathars. The Cathar leaders were given a chance to convert to Catholicism.
Simon and his soldiers tried to convert the Cathar leaders but failed. Only three women changed their beliefs. The 140 who refused were burned at the stake. Some entered the flames willingly. In August, the Crusaders attacked Termes. Despite attacks from Pierre-Roger de Cabaret, the siege was strong. The defenders suffered from a water shortage, and Ramon de Termes agreed to a temporary truce. A rainstorm briefly helped the Cathars, so Raymond refused to surrender. Eventually, the defenders could not break the siege, and the Cathars escaped on 22 November.
By 1211, the actions of Amalric and Simon de Montfort had angered important lords, including Raymond de Toulouse, who was excommunicated again. The Crusaders returned to Lastours in March, and Pierre-Roger de Cabaret surrendered. In April 1211, de Montfort besieged L
Inquisition
After the military part of the campaign against the Cathars ended, the Inquisition was created in 1234 by Pope Gregory IX. Its goal was to stop heretical groups, including the remaining Cathars. The Inquisition worked in southern towns like Toulouse, Albi, and Carcassonne throughout the 13th century and much of the 14th century. It successfully ended Catharism as a public movement and forced its followers to hide.
Punishments for Cathars varied. Many were forced to wear yellow crosses on their clothing as a sign of punishment. Some had to go on pilgrimages, which sometimes included fighting Muslims. Others were required to visit a church naked once a month and be whipped. Pilgrims who returned also faced this punishment. Cathars who did not repent or who returned to old ways were often imprisoned and lost their property. Those who refused to repent were burned. Most people accused of being Cathars avoided death and received lighter punishments.
Friars from the Dominican Order, named after their leader Saint Dominic, traveled to towns and villages to teach Church teachings and oppose heresy. In some cases, they helped prosecute Cathars.
From 1242 to 1243, Raymond VII, with help from King Henry III of England, tried to rebel against France but failed. In May 1242, two Inquisitors were killed at Avignonet-Lauragais. Between May 1243 and March 1244, the Cathar fortress of Montségur was attacked by soldiers from Carcassonne and the Archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16, 1244, in response to the earlier killings, over 200 Cathar leaders were burned in a large fire near the fortress, called the "field of the burned." One of those burned was Bertrand Marty, the Cathar bishop of Toulouse from 1225.
After this, Catharism did not disappear completely but continued in secret. The Inquisition kept searching for and trying to prosecute Cathars. Few important people joined the Cathars, but some ordinary followers remained and hid well. Inquisitors sometimes used torture to find Cathars, but they caught only a small number.
Raymond died in 1249, and when Alphonse died in 1271, the County of Toulouse was taken over by the Kingdom of France. The Inquisition received money from the French king. In the 1290s, King Philip IV, who had conflicts with Pope Boniface VIII, reduced the Inquisition’s funding and limited its work. However, after visiting southern France in 1303, he saw anti-monarchy feelings in the region, especially in Carcassonne, and removed the restrictions on the Inquisition.
Pope Clement V created new rules to protect people accused of crimes. Dominican friar Bernard Gui, who led the Inquisition in Toulouse from 1308 to 1323, wrote a guide about non-Catholic groups and how to fight heresy. His guide described Cathar customs and compared them to Catholic traditions. He also explained how to question accused Cathars. Gui ruled that if someone died without confessing to heresy, their body would be dug up and burned. If someone was known to be a heretic but it was unclear if they confessed, their body would be dug up but not burned. Under Gui’s leadership, a final effort to end Catharism began. By 1350, all known Cathar followers had been eliminated.
Legacy
Edward Peters stated that the violence during the Albigensian Crusade did not match the plans of Pope Innocent. Pope Innocent wanted to focus on confession, improve the behavior of clergy and common people, and teach religious lessons to stop heresy. Peters said the violence happened because the crusade was controlled by crowds, local rulers, and bishops who ignored Pope Innocent’s ideas. The anger of local groups, the harsh actions of secular courts, and the bloodshed during the crusade caused the papacy to want more control over how heresy was handled. This led to the creation of organized legal methods to deal with people accused of heresy.
Because of the Albigensian Crusade, few French people joined the Fifth and Sixth crusades. Historian Strayer said the crusade increased the power of the French king and made the papacy rely more on the king, which eventually led to the Avignon Papacy.
Many songs about the Albigensian Crusade were written by troubadours, who were poet-musicians and often knights. For example, Raimon de Miraval wrote a song asking Peter II to reclaim his castle from Simon. Another song by Tomier and Palaizi criticized how Raymond VI was treated and encouraged him to fight back. An epic poem called Canso de la Crozada (Song of the Crusade) was written in the early 1200s and described the crusade. The crusade and its aftermath marked the beginning of the decline of the troubadour tradition. Many Occitan courts, which supported troubadours, were destroyed during the crusade. This caused the tradition to fade and most troubadours to move to royal courts in Italy, Spain, and Hungary.
Raphael Lemkin, who created the word "genocide" in the 20th century, called the Albigensian Crusade "one of the most clear examples of genocide in religious history." Mark Gregory Pegg wrote that the crusade introduced genocide to the West by connecting religious salvation to mass killing, making murder seem as holy as Jesus’s sacrifice on the cross.
Robert E. Lerner disagreed with Pegg’s claim that the crusade was a genocide. He said the crusade targeted people who did not believe in the correct religion, not an entire group or people. He also argued that those who joined the crusade did not plan to destroy the population of southern France. Lerner said Pegg’s comparison of the crusade to modern ethnic violence was not valid.
Laurence Marvin was less critical of Pegg’s view that the crusade was a genocide but disagreed with Pegg’s idea that the crusade set a historical example for later genocides, such as the Holocaust.
Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Solveig Björnson called the Albigensian Crusade "the first ideological genocide." Jonassohn and Frank Chalk, who started the Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies, included a detailed study of the crusade in their textbook The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, which was written by Strayer and Malise Ruthven.