Akhenaten, also spelled Akhenaton, Echnaton, and Khuenaten, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh who ruled around 1353–1336 or 1351–1334 BC. He was the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty. His original name was Amenhotep IV, meaning "Amun is satisfied." In the fifth year of his reign, he changed his name to Akhenaten.
As a pharaoh, Akhenaten is known for changing Egypt’s traditional religion, which honored many gods, to a new belief centered on a single god called Aten. Some Egyptologists believe this change was a form of worship focused on one god, while others think it was a mix of beliefs. After Akhenaten died, Egypt returned to its traditional religion. His monuments were destroyed, his statues were broken, and his name was removed from lists of rulers by later pharaohs. His close successor, Tutankhamun, changed his name from Tutankhaten early in his reign. Later, when a new dynasty began without clear ties to the Eighteenth Dynasty, they criticized Akhenaten and his successors, calling him "the enemy of Akhetaten" or "that criminal" in records.
Akhenaten was nearly forgotten until the late 19th century, when the city of Amarna, also called Akhetaten, was discovered. This was the capital he built for worshiping Aten. In 1907, a mummy found in the tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings was believed to be Akhenaten. Genetic testing later showed the mummy was Tutankhamun’s father, but whether it is Akhenaten remains uncertain.
Akhenaten’s rediscovery and early studies by Flinders Petrie at Amarna sparked interest in him and his queen, Nefertiti. He is described as mysterious, revolutionary, and the first individual in history, but also as a heretic and possibly unstable. People and scholars are fascinated by Akhenaten because of his connection to Tutankhamun, the unique and high-quality art he supported, and his attempt to create a new religious belief that resembled monotheism.
Family
The future pharaoh Akhenaten was born as Amenhotep, the younger son of Pharaoh Amenhotep III and his main wife, Tiye. Akhenaten had an older brother, Crown Prince Thutmose, who was named as the heir to Amenhotep III’s throne. Akhenaten also had four or five sisters: Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Iset, Nebetah, and possibly Beketaten. Thutmose died early, possibly around the thirtieth year of Amenhotep III’s rule, which made Akhenaten the next in line to become pharaoh.
Akhenaten married Nefertiti, his Great Royal Wife. The exact time of their marriage is unknown, but records from building projects suggest they married shortly before or after Akhenaten became pharaoh. For example, Egyptologist Dimitri Laboury proposed that their marriage occurred in Akhenaten’s fourth year of rule. Another wife of Akhenaten, named Kiya, is also mentioned in inscriptions. Some scholars believe Kiya was the mother of Tutankhamun. William Murnane suggested that Kiya might be the common name of Tadukhipa, a princess from the Mitanni kingdom, who was married to Amenhotep III before later becoming the wife of Akhenaten. Other recorded wives of Akhenaten include the daughter of Šatiya, a ruler of Enišasi, and another daughter of the Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II.
Akhenaten had seven known daughters. Six of them were born to Nefertiti. Another daughter, whose name is not recorded, was born to Kiya before the thirteenth year of Akhenaten’s rule. Pharaoh Tutankhamun, originally named Tutankhaten, was Akhenaten’s son-in-law and is likely also his biological son, either with Nefertiti or another wife. Genetic testing conducted between 2007 and 2009 by Zahi Hawass’s team suggested that Tutankhamun’s parents were a man buried in KV55 and a woman nicknamed “The Younger Lady.” These individuals were most likely the son and full sister of Amenhotep III and Tiye, which would make them Akhenaten’s parents.
However, the lack of evidence that Akhenaten ever married any of his sisters has raised questions about the accuracy of the genetic findings. Some scholars suggest that the DNA results might be unreliable due to contamination or the possibility of inbreeding among royal family members. Alternative theories include the idea that Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten and one of his daughters, Meritaten or Meketaten, which would explain the genetic evidence of inbreeding. Another theory suggests that the man in KV55 was Smenkhkare, Akhenaten’s co-ruler or successor, making Tutankhamun his nephew instead of his son. Some scholars, like Joyce Tyldesley, argue that the genetic results are unreliable and propose that Kiya was Tutankhamun’s mother, with the man in KV55 being Smenkhkare, not the son of Amenhotep III and Tiye, but rather their grandson and Tutankhamun’s half-brother.
Smenkhkare, who was married to Meritaten, might have been Akhenaten’s brother or son from an unknown wife. Some researchers suggest Smenkhkare could be the same person as Neferneferuaten, a female pharaoh believed to be Nefertiti.
Some historians, such as Edward Wente and James Allen, have proposed that Akhenaten may have married some of his daughters or used them as consorts to father a male heir. While this idea is debated, historical examples exist, such as Amenhotep III marrying his daughter Sitamun and Ramesses II marrying two or more of his daughters, even if those marriages were ceremonial. Akhenaten’s oldest daughter, Meritaten, is recorded as the Great Royal Wife of Smenkhkare and is also listed on a box from Tutankhamun’s tomb alongside Akhenaten and Neferneferuaten as Great Royal Wife. Letters from foreign rulers also refer to Meritaten as “mistress of the house.”
Early Egyptologists believed Akhenaten may have fathered a child with his second-oldest daughter, Meketaten, based on an infant depicted in her tomb. However, no husband is recorded for Meketaten, leading to the assumption that Akhenaten was the father. Aidan Dodson argues this is unlikely, as no Egyptian tomb mentions the cause of death of its owner. Jacobus van Dijk suggests the infant in the tomb may represent Meketaten’s soul. Additionally, some monuments originally dedicated to Kiya were later changed to honor Akhenaten’s daughters, Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten, with inscriptions listing a “junior” version of each. Some scholars believe this indicates Akhenaten fathered grandchildren, while others argue these grandchildren are fictional, created to replace references to Kiya’s child.
Early life
Egyptologists have limited information about Akhenaten’s life during his time as prince Amenhotep. Donald B. Redford estimates that Akhenaten was born before his father, Amenhotep III, reached his 25th year of rule, around 1363–1361 BC. This estimate is based on the likely early birth of Akhenaten’s first daughter. The only known mention of his name as “the King’s Son Amenhotep” appears on a document found at Amenhotep III’s Malkata palace, where some historians believe he was born. Others suggest he was born in Memphis, where he may have been influenced by the worship of the sun god Ra practiced nearby in Heliopolis. However, Redford and James K. Hoffmeier note that Ra’s religious traditions were widespread across Egypt, so Akhenaten could have been influenced by solar worship even if he did not live near Heliopolis.
Some historians have attempted to identify Akhenaten’s tutor during his youth. Proposed candidates include scribes Heqareshu or Meryre II, the royal tutor Amenemotep, or the vizier Aperel. The only person confirmed to have served the prince is Parennefer, as noted in his tomb.
Egyptologist Cyril Aldred suggests that prince Amenhotep may have been a High Priest of Ptah in Memphis. However, no evidence supports this claim. It is known that Amenhotep’s brother, crown prince Thutmose, held this role before his death. If Amenhotep inherited his brother’s positions in preparation for becoming king, he may have taken over as high priest in Thutmose’s place. Aldred proposes that Akhenaten’s unique interest in art may have developed during his time serving Ptah, the patron god of craftsmen. Ptah’s high priests were sometimes called “The Greatest of the Directors of Craftsmanship.”
Reign
There is much debate about whether Amenhotep IV became the ruler of Egypt after his father, Amenhotep III, died or if they ruled together for some time. Some scholars, like Eric Cline, Nicholas Reeves, Peter Dorman, and others, believe that Amenhotep IV did not share power with his father for many years. They think either there was no shared rule or it lasted only two years. Other scholars, such as Donald B. Redford, William J. Murnane, Alan Gardiner, and Lawrence Berman, disagree and say there was no shared rule at all between Amenhotep IV and his father.
In 2014, archaeologists discovered the names of both Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV (later called Akhenaten) on a wall in the tomb of a man named Amenhotep-Huy. Egyptian officials said this proved that Akhenaten shared power with his father for at least eight years. However, other Egyptologists later questioned this, explaining that the inscription only meant the tomb was built during Amenhotep III’s reign and finished during Akhenaten’s. It does not necessarily mean they ruled together.
Amenhotep IV became king, most likely in 1353 or 1351 B.C. His age when he took the throne is unknown, but estimates range from 10 to 23 years old. He was probably crowned in Thebes, though it is less likely he was crowned in Memphis or Armant.
At the start of his reign, Amenhotep IV followed traditions used by earlier kings. He did not immediately change Egypt’s religious practices to focus only on the Aten, a sun god. Egyptologist Donald B. Redford believes this suggests Amenhotep IV’s religious changes were not planned before he became king. He supports this with three pieces of evidence: first, records show Amenhotep IV worshipped many gods, including Atum, Osiris, Anubis, Nekhbet, Hathor, and the Eye of Ra. Second, the High Priest of Amun was still active in the fourth year of his reign. Third, he did not destroy temples to other gods and continued his father’s work on the temple at Karnak.
Early in his reign, artistic styles in tombs, such as those of Kheruef, Ramose, and Parennefer, remained traditional. In Ramose’s tomb, Amenhotep IV is shown seated on a throne, while Ramose stands before him. On another wall, Amenhotep IV and Nefertiti appear in a window of appearances, with the Aten shown as a sun disc. In Parennefer’s tomb, Amenhotep IV and Nefertiti are seated on a throne, with the sun disc above them.
While still worshipping other gods, Amenhotep IV began building new places of worship for the Aten. He ordered temples or shrines to the Aten in cities like Bubastis, Tell el-Borg, Heliopolis, Memphis, Nekhen, Kawa, and Kerma. He also built a large temple complex for the Aten at Karnak, near the parts of the temple dedicated to Amun. This complex, called the Per Aten, included several temples named Gempaaten, Hwt Benben, Rud-Menu, Teni-Menu, and Sekhen Aten.
Around the second or third year of his reign, Amenhotep IV held a Sed festival. These festivals were special ceremonies to celebrate a pharaoh’s health and strength, usually held around the 30th year of a reign and repeated every few years. Egyptologists do not know why Amenhotep IV held one so early, possibly in his early twenties. Some believe it showed he ruled together with his father, others think it honored the Aten, and others suggest it prepared him for his religious changes and the creation of a new capital, Akhetaten. During the festival, Amenhotep IV only offered prayers to the Aten, not to other gods.
The last records that refer to Amenhotep IV as "Amenhotep IV" are letters from Ipy, the high steward of Memphis. These letters, found at Gurob, said the royal estates in Memphis were "in good order" and the temple of Ptah was "prosperous and flourishing." They were dated to the fifth year of his reign. About a month later, a boundary stela at Akhetaten already had the name "Akhenaten" carved on it, showing he changed his name between these two events.
Amenhotep IV changed his royal titles to show his devotion to the Aten. He no longer used the name "Amenhotep IV," which was linked to the god Amun, but instead focused on the Aten. Egyptologists debate the meaning of his new name, "Akhenaten." The word "akh" might mean "satisfied," "effective spirit," or "serviceable to," so his name could mean "Aten is satisfied," "Effective spirit of the Aten," or "Serviceable to the Aten." Gertie Englund and Florence Friedman believe it means "Effective for the Aten" based on how he used the term in texts.
Some historians, like William F. Albright, Edel Elmar, and Gerhard Fecht, think "Aten" might have been miswritten or mispronounced as "Jāti," making his name "Akhenjāti" or "Aḫanjāti."
Examples of Amenhotep IV’s titles include:
– "Strong Bull of the Double Plumes"
– "Great of Kingship in Karnak"
– "Great of Kingship in Akhet-Aten"
– "Crowned in Heliopolis of the South" (Thebes)
– "Exalter of the Name of Aten"
– "Amun is Satisfied, Divine Lord of Thebes"
– "Effective for the Aten"
Around the same time he changed his titles, on the thirteenth day of the fourth month of the growing season, Akhenaten made a decree.
Atenism
Egyptians worshipped a sun god with many names. Solar worship became more popular before Akhenaten, especially during the Eighteenth Dynasty and the reign of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten’s father. During the New Kingdom, the pharaoh was linked to the sun disc. For example, one inscription called the pharaoh Hatshepsut the "female Re shining like the Disc," and Amenhotep III was described as "he who rises over every foreign land, Nebmare, the dazzling disc." During the Eighteenth Dynasty, a religious hymn to the sun appeared and became popular among Egyptians. However, Egyptologists question whether the growing popularity of the sun disc before Akhenaten influenced his religious policies. Amenhotep III used the royal title "Aten-Tjehen," meaning "the Dazzling Sun Disk," in his 30th year of rule. This showed his growing interest in the Aten god and elevated it from a minor god to a major one by giving it royal support. He also named his youngest daughter, born to his wife Tiye, "Beketaten," meaning "Handmaid of Aten." However, Amenhotep III did not make the Aten the only god during his reign. His main religious devotion remained toward Amun-Ra, a combination of the Theban god Amun and the northern Egyptian sun god Ra.
Atenism developed through changes in how the Aten was shown. Egyptologist Donald B. Redford divided this into three stages: earliest, intermediate, and final. In the earliest stage, the sun disc was often shown resting on the head of Ra-Horakhty, the falcon-headed sun god, as was traditional. The god was "unique but not exclusive." In the intermediate stage, the Aten was raised above other gods, and his name was placed in cartouches, symbols usually reserved for royal names. In the final stage, the Aten was shown as a sun disc with rays ending in human hands, and a new title was used: "the great living Disc which is in jubilee, lord of heaven and earth."
In the early years of his reign, Amenhotep IV lived in Thebes, Egypt’s old capital, and allowed worship of traditional gods to continue. However, signs showed the Aten was becoming more important. For example, inscriptions in the tomb of Parennefer, from the early rule of Amenhotep IV, said, "one measures the payments to every (other) god with a level measure, but for the Aten one measures so that it overflows," showing more favor toward the Aten than other gods. Near the Temple of Karnak, Amun-Ra’s main worship center, Amenhotep IV built large temples for the Aten. These temples had no roof, so worship of the Aten happened in the open air, under the sun, instead of in enclosed temple spaces as was usual. Later, these Theban buildings were dismantled by his successors and used in the Temple of Karnak. When archaeologists later removed them, they found 36,000 decorated blocks that preserved parts of the original artwork and inscriptions.
A major turning point in Amenhotep IV’s early reign was a speech he gave at the start of his second year. A copy of this speech was found on a pylon at the Karnak Temple Complex. Speaking to the royal court, scribes, or the people, Amenhotep IV said the gods were ineffective and had stopped moving, and their temples had collapsed. He contrasted this with the Aten, who continued to move and exist forever. Some Egyptologists, like Donald B. Redford, compared this speech to a proclamation that explained his later religious reforms centered on the Aten. In his speech, Akhenaten said:
"The temples of the gods have fallen to ruin, their bodies do not endure. Since the time of the ancestors, it is the wise man who knows these things. Behold, I, the king, am speaking so that I might inform you concerning the appearances of the gods. I know their temples, and I am versed in the writings, specifically, the inventory of their primeval bodies. And I have watched as they [the gods] have ceased their appearances, one after the other. All of them have stopped, except the god who gave birth to himself. And no one knows the mystery of how he performs his tasks. This god goes where he pleases and no one else knows his going. I approach him, the things which he has made. How exalted they are."
In Year Five of his reign, Amenhotep IV took steps to make the Aten the only god of Egypt. He disbanded the priesthoods of other gods and redirected their income to support the Aten. To show his loyalty to the Aten, he changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten, meaning "Effective for the Aten." The Aten was also depicted with symbols of a pharaoh, such as a cartouche and a uraeus, a sign of kingship. The Aten may have been the subject of Akhenaten’s royal Sed festival early in his reign. As the Aten became the sole god, Akhenaten claimed to be the only link between the Aten and the people, a role similar to Fifth Dynasty pharaohs like Nyuserre Ini, who claimed to be the only link between the people and gods like Osiris and Ra.
By Year Nine of his reign, Akhenaten declared the Aten not only the supreme god but the only god to be worshipped. He ordered the destruction of Amun’s temples and removed inscriptions that used the plural "gods." This highlighted the new regime’s changes, including a ban on images except for the sun disc, which represented the Aten’s unseen spirit. All life on Earth was believed to depend on the Aten and sunlight. Representations of the Aten always included a hieroglyphic note explaining that the sun was shown as the all-encompassing creator, even though it could not be fully represented. The Aten’s name was also written differently, removing its connection to other solar gods like Re-Horakhty and Shu. The Aten became a combination of these deities, incorporating their attributes.
Akhenaten’s beliefs about the Aten are best described in the Great Hymn to the Aten. The hymn was found in the tomb of Ay, one of Akhenaten’s successors, though Egyptologists believe it may have been written earlier.
Artistic depictions
Art styles that became popular during the time of Akhenaten and his close family, called Amarna art, are very different from the art of ancient Egypt before this time. These artworks show more realistic, expressive, and natural details, especially in pictures of animals, plants, and people. They also show more movement and action for both common people and royalty, unlike the older art, which often showed rulers as still and unmoving.
In older Egyptian art, pharaohs were usually shown as calm and unchanging to show their divine power. However, Akhenaten was drawn in a very different way. Earlier pharaohs were shown as young, strong, and beautiful in a typical way. But Akhenaten was shown with a large stomach, wide hips, thin legs, thick thighs, large breasts, a long face, and thick lips. These features were not typical for a pharaoh.
Some people have suggested that Akhenaten and his family might have had medical conditions, such as aromatase excess syndrome or sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, or Antley–Bixler syndrome. In 2010, genetic tests on a mummy believed to be Akhenaten did not find signs of these conditions, but later research has raised questions about these results.
Instead, some experts, like Dominic Montserrat, argue that the unusual way Akhenaten was shown in art is symbolic. Since the god Aten was called "the mother and father of all humankind," artists may have made Akhenaten look androgynous (having both male and female traits) to represent the god's qualities. This would show that Akhenaten carried the life-giving powers of Aten on Earth. Akhenaten also used the title "The Unique One of Re," and he may have wanted his artists to show him as very different from the idealized images of past pharaohs.
Other people in Akhenaten’s court, especially his family, were also shown in unusual and exaggerated ways. This was rare in Egyptian art. For the first time, the royal family was shown in everyday, relaxed, and affectionate scenes, such as holding hands or kissing.
Nefertiti, Akhenaten’s wife, was often shown beside him or with their children. She was sometimes shown doing tasks usually reserved for male pharaohs, like "smiting the enemy." This suggests she had a special role. Early pictures of her looked similar to Akhenaten, but later artworks showed her with unique features. It is still unclear whether her beauty was shown realistically or as an ideal.
Speculative theories
Akhenaten was a religious leader, and this has caused many people to guess about his beliefs. Some think the religion he introduced was mostly about one god, while others believe he worshipped only the Aten but did not deny the existence of other gods. He simply chose not to worship any other gods besides the Aten.
Some scholars have suggested that Akhenaten was the first person to promote a religion that later became Judaism. Sigmund Freud, who created the field of psychoanalysis, wrote about this in his book Moses and Monotheism. He believed that Moses, a figure in the Bible, was once a priest who followed Akhenaten’s beliefs. Freud argued that Akhenaten tried to spread the idea of one god, which Moses later achieved. After Freud’s book was published, people began to think more about this idea, and it became a topic for serious study.
There are similarities between Akhenaten’s Great Hymn to the Aten and a Bible passage called Psalm 104. However, experts disagree about what these similarities mean. Some have compared Akhenaten’s relationship with the Aten to the relationship between Jesus Christ and God in Christianity. Donald B. Redford noted that some people have thought of Akhenaten as a forerunner of Jesus. Others, like James Henry Breasted, Arthur Weigall, and Thomas Mann, have made different comparisons about Akhenaten’s role.
Scholars like Brian Fagan and Robert Alter have discussed this topic again, but in 1997, Donald B. Redford concluded that there is little evidence to support the idea that Akhenaten was the origin of the full monotheism found in the Bible. He explained that the religious beliefs in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament developed separately, long after Akhenaten lived.
Akhenaten was often shown in art in a way that was different from other pharaohs, who were usually depicted as strong and athletic. Because of this, some Egyptologists in the 19th and 20th centuries thought he might have had a medical condition. Some suggested he might have had Fröhlich’s syndrome or Marfan syndrome.
Cyril Aldred, building on earlier ideas, thought Akhenaten might have had Fröhlich’s syndrome because of his long jaw and feminine appearance. However, this is unlikely because Fröhlich’s syndrome causes sterility, and Akhenaten had many children, as shown in ancient artwork.
Another idea was that Akhenaten might have had Marfan syndrome, which does not cause sterility or mental problems. People with Marfan syndrome often have tall, thin bodies, long faces, and other physical traits that some artists may have shown in Akhenaten’s portraits. However, DNA tests on Tutankhamun, who was Akhenaten’s grandson, did not find evidence of Marfan syndrome.
By the early 2000s, most Egyptologists believed that Akhenaten’s unusual appearance in art was not due to a medical condition. Instead, they think it was a symbolic choice influenced by Atenism. Artists made Akhenaten look androgynous, meaning neither fully male nor female, to represent the Aten’s spiritual qualities.
Cultural depictions
Akhenaten's life, achievements, and influence have been recorded and shown in many ways. Since his discovery in the 19th century AD, he has appeared in both serious and popular works of art and literature. Akhenaten is often shown in books and movies, similar to Cleopatra and Alexander the Great.
In literature, stories about Akhenaten usually fall into two types. One type follows his personal growth as he creates a new religion called Atenism and builds a new city, Akhetaten, while facing challenges from the powerful Theban Amun cult. Another type focuses on what happened after his reign and the effects of his religious changes. A clear difference also exists between how Akhenaten was shown before and after the 1920s. Before this time, artists often depicted him as a mysterious or ghost-like figure. After more archaeological discoveries provided evidence about his life, artists began to show him in a more realistic and detailed way. Examples of early fictional works include In the Tombs of the Kings (1910) by Lilian Bagnall, which introduced Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti in fiction, and A Wife Out of Egypt (1913) and There Was a King in Egypt (1918) by Norma Lorimer. Later works include Akhnaton King of Egypt (1924) by Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Joseph and His Brothers (1933–1943) by Thomas Mann, Akhnaton (1973) by Agatha Christie, and Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth (1985) by Naguib Mahfouz. Akhenaten also appears in The Egyptian (1945) by Mika Waltari, which was made into a movie in 1954. In this film, Akhenaten, played by Michael Wilding, is shown as a figure similar to Jesus Christ and early Christians.
A version of Akhenaten that focuses on his appearance and possible personal life has influenced modern art. This image comes from early Western interest in his unusual, androgynous look and theories about his sexuality or connections to ancient stories. Two famous examples are the unfilmed screenplay Akenaten (1975) by Derek Jarman and the opera Akhnaten (1984) by Philip Glass. These works were influenced by theories from Immanuel Velikovsky, who linked Akhenaten to the Greek story of Oedipus. However, Glass said he did not believe these theories and was more interested in their dramatic potential.
In the 21st century, Akhenaten has appeared as an antagonist in comic books and video games. For example, he is the main villain in the comic series Marvel: The End (2003). He also appears as an enemy in the Assassin's Creed Origins downloadable content The Curse of the Pharaohs (2017).
The American death metal band Nile wrote a song called Cast Down the Heretic on their 2005 album Annihilation of the Wicked, which describes Akhenaten's judgment, punishment, and removal from history by the gods he replaced with Aten. He also appears on the cover of their 2009 album Those Whom the Gods Detest.