Basque ( / ˈ b æ s k , ˈ b ɑː s k / BASK , BAHSK ; called euskara [ eus̺ˈkaɾa ] by its speakers ) is a language spoken by Basques and others in the Basque Country, a region that includes parts of southwestern France and northern Spain near the Pyrenees mountains. Basque is the only language in Europe that is not related to any other known languages. The Basques are the original people of the Basque Country and mostly live there. Basque has 806,000 speakers: 93.7% (756,000) live in the Spanish part of the Basque Country, and 6.3% (51,000) live in the French part.

Native speakers live in an area that includes parts of four Spanish provinces and three historic regions in France. Before the 1980s, the core area where Basque was spoken included parts of Gipuzkoa, most of Biscay, some areas near the northern border of Álava, and the northern part of Navarre. However, most of Álava, the western part of Biscay, and central and southern Navarre are mostly home to people who speak Spanish, either because Basque was replaced by Spanish or Navarro-Aragonese over time, or because Basque was never spoken there.

During Spain’s Francoist era, the government discouraged the use of Basque through strict rules. In the Basque Country, these rules targeted not only politics but also language and culture. Basque was banned from official use, education, and publishing. It was illegal to name newborn babies with Basque names, and tombstones with Basque writing were removed. In some areas, people were fined for speaking Basque, and using it publicly was seen as supporting opposition to the government. However, in the 1960s, under Franco’s rule, efforts to teach and publish in Basque began to grow. A standard version of the language, called Euskara Batua, was created by the Euskaltzaindia in the late 1960s to help Basque speakers communicate clearly in formal settings like education and media.

Basque has five historic dialects: Biscayan, Gipuzkoan, and Upper Navarrese in Spain, and Navarrese–Lapurdian and Souletin in France. These dialects are named after historic regions, but their boundaries do not match the modern provinces. Euskara Batua is now the main form of Basque used in schools, media, and literature. In both Spain and France, the use of Basque in education varies by region and school.

Basque is the only remaining language from the ancient European languages spoken before the arrival of Indo-European languages, such as Celtic and Romance languages. Basque grammar is different from most European languages because of its structure, which includes adding parts to words and using a sentence structure that is not common in other European languages.

Names of the language

The name of the language changes based on the dialect, but in standard Basque, it is called euskara. In French, the language is usually called Basque, though euskara has become more common recently. In Spanish, there are many names for the language. Today, it is most often called vasco, lengua vasca, or euskera. Both "vasco" and "Basque" come from the Latin name Vascones, which was originally used by the Greek writer Strabo in his work Geographica (23 CE, Book III).

The Spanish term vascuence, which comes from the Latin word vasconĭce, has developed negative meanings over time and is not favored by most Basque speakers. This term was used as early as the 14th century. For example, in 1349, a law in Huesca stated that people could not use Arabic, Hebrew, or Basque in marketplaces. Those who broke this rule had to pay a fine of 30 sols, which was equal to the value of 30 sheep.

History and classification

The Basque language is surrounded by Romance languages but is a language isolate, meaning it is not related to them or any other living language. Most scholars believe Basque is the last remaining descendant of one of the pre-Indo-European languages spoken in Europe before the Indo-European languages arrived. Because Basque is unrelated to other languages, it is difficult to study its history using traditional methods, except by comparing differences between its dialects. Little is known about its origins, but it is likely that an early form of Basque existed in the modern Basque Country before Indo-European languages spread to western Europe around 3000 BCE.

Some scholars, like Miguel de Unamuno and Louis Lucien Bonaparte, have observed that words for "knife," "axe," and "hoe" in Basque seem to come from the word for "stone." They suggest this connection may indicate that the language dates back to prehistoric Europe, when these tools were made of stone. Others disagree with this idea.

Latin writings from Gallia Aquitania include words that are similar to those in the reconstructed early form of Basque, such as the names Nescato and Cison, which resemble modern Basque words for "young girl" and "man." This early language is called Aquitanian and was likely spoken in the region before the Roman Republic's conquests in the western Pyrenees. Some scholars argue that Basque moved westward during Late antiquity after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, settling in the area now known as the Basque Country.

Because the Romans focused less on this region, Aquitanian survived while other languages like Iberian and Tartessian disappeared. Over time, Basque absorbed many words from Romance languages, starting with Latin, then later from Gascon (a dialect of Occitan), Navarro-Aragonese, and Spanish.

Since 1968, efforts have been made to revive the Basque language, despite many challenges. Progress has been made in many areas, and six main factors have been identified as reasons for its success. In addition, the development of language technologies has also played an important role.

Many linguists have tried to connect Basque to other languages, but no theory has gained widespread support. Some comparisons are considered pseudoscientific, while others attempt to link Basque to distant language families like Georgian. Studying Basque's history is difficult because written records are limited to only a few hundred years. Most theories about its origins are debated, and the evidence supporting them is not widely accepted by mainstream linguists. Some proposed connections include:

Geographic distribution

The area where Basque is spoken has become smaller over time, especially near the north, south, and east. Little is known about the region’s boundaries in ancient times, but from place names and inscriptions, it seems that by the start of the Common Era, it reached the Garonne River in the north (including parts of modern-day France), at least to the Val d'Aran in the east (now part of Catalonia), and included lands on both sides of the Pyrenees. The southern and western borders are unclear.

During the Reconquista, Christian leaders asked people from northern Iberia (including Basques, Asturians, and "Franks") to help settle newly conquered areas, which temporarily slowed the shrinking of the Basque-speaking region.

By the 16th century, the Basque-speaking area was mostly limited to the seven provinces of the Basque Country today, excluding parts of Navarre, Álava, and Biscay, and including some areas of Béarn. In 1807, Basque was still spoken in northern Álava, including its capital, Vitoria-Gasteiz, and much of central Navarre. However, in these areas, Basque use declined quickly, pushing its borders northward. In the French Basque Country, Basque was spoken everywhere except near Bayonne and some nearby villages, as well as in parts of Béarn.

In the 20th century, growing Basque nationalism led to more interest in the language as a symbol of identity. With the creation of self-governing regions in the Southern Basque Country, Basque use increased slightly. In Spain, schools and centers teaching Basque have brought the language to areas like western Enkarterri and southern Navarre, where it was not widely spoken before. In the French Basque Country, these efforts have slowed the decline of the language.

Historically, Latin or Romance languages were official in the region. However, Basque was officially recognized in some areas. For example, the legal charter of Ojacastro (now in La Rioja) allowed Basque to be used in court cases in the 13th and 14th centuries. In Spain, Basque was permitted in telegraph messages due to a royal decree in 1904.

Spain’s 1978 Constitution states that Spanish is the official language but allows regions to have co-official languages. The Basque Autonomous Community’s law makes Basque a co-official language. Navarre’s law sets Spanish as the official language but grants co-official status to Basque in northern Navarre. Basque has no official status in the French Basque Country, and French citizens cannot use it in French courts. However, Spanish citizens can use Basque in French courts with translation.

Governments in areas where Basque is spoken have different approaches to promoting the language. It has official status in the Basque Autonomous Community, where it is widely used and promoted, but only partially in Navarre. Navarre’s "Law of Basque" divides the region into three language areas: Basque-speaking, non-Basque-speaking, and mixed. Support for Basque and its speakers varies depending on the region. Some view the law as unfair because Basque speakers’ rights differ based on where they live.

A 2021 survey found that among people aged 16 and older in Basque-speaking areas (2,634,800 total), 806,000 spoke Basque, or 30.6% of the population. This is an increase from 1991, when 539,110 people spoke Basque. The rise is mainly due to bilingualism, as fewer people now learn Basque as their only first language. In 2016, only 15.1% of people learned Basque as their sole first language, down from 19% in 1991. More people now use both Basque and another language as their first language (5.4% in 2016, up from 3% in 1991). Public support for promoting Basque has also grown, with fewer people opposing efforts to preserve the language.

In the Basque Autonomous Community, 98% of children with Basque-speaking parents were raised speaking only Basque, and 2% spoke both Basque and Spanish. In Navarre, 94.3% of children with Basque-speaking parents were raised speaking Basque. In the Northern Basque Country, only two-thirds of children with Basque-speaking parents were raised speaking only Basque, and this rate decreased with younger age groups.

Basque is used in business in the Basque Country and in places around the world where Basques have lived.

Modern Basque dialects show many differences, making communication between dialects difficult. Biscayan and Souletin are the most different.

Modern Basque dialectology identifies five main dialects, divided into 11 subdialects and 24 smaller varieties. According to Koldo Zuazo, the Biscayan dialect, or "Western" dialect, is the most common, with about 300,000 speakers out of 660,000 total. It has two subdialects and transitional forms.

Although Basque has been influenced by neighboring Romance languages (especially vocabulary, but also some sounds and grammar), it is believed that Basque also influenced these languages. Gascon and Aragonese, in particular, and Spanish to a lesser extent, may have been shaped by Basque through historical language changes.

Some Spanish words are claimed to have Basque origins, such as anchoa (anchovy), bizarro (dashing), and cachorro (puppy). However, most have clearer Romance roots or unclear Basque connections.

Phonology

The Basque language has five vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/ (the same as in Spanish, Asturian, and Aragonese). In the Zuberoan dialect, there are additional sounds.

Basque does not have different vowel lengths, but vowels can be longer when emphasizing something. The vowels /e/ and /o/ are pronounced higher when followed by nasal sounds.

There is a rule that removes the vowel /a/ before another vowel. However, this does not stop words from having diphthongs with /a/.

Basque has six diphthongs, all falling, with /i̯/ or /u̯/ as the second sound.

At the end of a syllable, all plosive sounds (like /b/, /d/, and /g/) are pronounced without voice, and this is shown in writing. When between vowels or after /r/ or /l/, the sounds /b/, /d/, and /g/ are pronounced as /β/, /ð/, and /ɣ/.

Basque distinguishes between two ways of making the /s/ and /z/ sounds. One is made with the front part of the tongue, and the other with the tip. These are written as ⟨z⟩ and ⟨s⟩, respectively. For example, zu (you) is different from su (fire). The affricate counterparts are written ⟨tz⟩ and ⟨ts⟩. So, etzi (the day after tomorrow) is different from etsi (to give up); atzo (yesterday) is different from atso (old woman).

In the western parts of the Basque country, only the ⟨s⟩ and ⟨tz⟩ sounds are used.

Basque has sounds like /ʃ/ (written ⟨x⟩) and /tʃ/ (written ⟨tx⟩).

The letter ⟨j⟩ has different pronunciations depending on the dialect: [j, dʒ, x, ʃ, ɟ, ʝ], from west to east in south Bizkaia and coastal Lapurdi, central Bizkaia, east Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, south Navarre, inland Lapurdi and Low Navarre, and Zuberoa, respectively.

The letter ⟨h⟩ is pronounced in northern dialects but not in southern ones. Unified Basque writes it except when it is predictable, after a consonant.

Words usually do not start with ⟨r⟩ unless they are recent loanwords (e.g., Ruanda 'Rwanda', radar, robot). Older loans have extra vowels, like Erroma 'Rome' and Errusia 'Russia'.

Basque does not have /m/ at the end of words. The /n/ at the end changes based on the next sound, like /nb/ becoming [mb] and /nɡ/ becoming [ŋɡ].

Basque has two types of palatalization: automatic and expressive. Automatic palatalization occurs in western Labourd, much of Navarre, all of Gipuzkoa, and nearly all of Biscay. This changes /n/ and /l/ to [ɲ] and [ʎ] after /i/ and before another vowel. An exception is the loanword lili 'lily'. The same change happens after the semivowel [j] in diphthongs like ai, ei, oi, and ui. Expressive palatalization is used in some regions to show affection or smallness, like gizon (man) becoming gixon (little man).

In some words, /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/ can become softer, shown by double letters or ⟨ñ⟩.

Different dialects pronounce ⟨tt⟩ and ⟨dd⟩ differently. In some, ⟨tt⟩ sounds like ⟨tx⟩, and ⟨dd⟩ is not used.

Grammar

样的

</think>

Basque is an ergative–absolutive language. The subject of an intransitive verb is in the absolutive case (which is unmarked), and the same case is used for the direct object of a transitive verb. The subject of the transitive verb is marked differently, with the ergative case (shown by the suffix -k). That also triggers main and auxiliary verbal agreement.

The auxiliary verb, which accompanies most main verbs, agrees not only with the subject but also with any direct or indirect object present. Among European languages, the polypersonal agreement is found only in Basque, some languages of the Caucasus (especially the Kartvelian languages), Mordvinic languages, Hungarian, and Maltese (all non-Indo-European). The ergative–absolutive alignment is also rare among European languages and occurs only in some languages of the Caucasus but is frequent worldwide.

AUX. 3. OBJ-PL. OBJ-me. IO [3SG_SBJ]

Martin-ek egunkari-ak erosten di-zki-t

Martin-ERG newspaper-PL.ABS buy-GER AUX.3.OBJ-PL.OBJ-me.IO[3SG_SBJ]

"Martin buys the newspapers for me."

Martin-ek is the agent (transitive subject), so it is marked with the ergative case ending -k (with an epenthetic -e-). Egunkariak has an -ak ending, which marks plural object (plural absolutive, direct object case). The verb is erosten dizkit, in which erosten is a kind of gerund ("buying") and the auxiliary dizkit means "he/she (does) them for me." The dizkit can be divided like this:

AUX. 3. OBJ-PL. OBJ-me. IO-you(PL). SBJ

Zu-ek egunkari-ak erosten di-zki-da-zue

you-ERG(PL) newspaper-PL buy-GER AUX.3.OBJ-PL.OBJ-me.IO-you(PL).SBJ

"You (plural) buy the newspapers for me."

The auxiliary verb is composed as di-zki-da-zue and means 'you pl. (do) them for me.'

The pronoun zuek 'you (plural)' has the same form both in the nominative or absolutive case (the subject of an intransitive sentence or direct object of a transitive sentence) and in the ergative case (the subject of a transitive sentence). In spoken Basque, the auxiliary verb is never dropped even if it is redundant: dizkidazue in zuek niri egunkariak erosten dizkidazue 'you (pl.) are buying the newspapers for me.' However, the pronouns are almost always dropped: zuek in egunkariak erosten dizkidazue 'you (pl.) are buying the newspapers for me.' The pronouns are used only to show emphasis: egunkariak zuek erosten dizkidazue 'it is you (pl.) who buys the newspapers for me,' or egunkariak niri erosten dizkidazue 'it is me for whom you buy the newspapers.'

Modern Basque dialects allow for the conjugation of about fifteen verbs, called synthetic verbs, some occurring only in literary contexts. They can exist in the present and the past tenses in the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in three tenses in the conditional and the potential moods, and in one tense in the imperative. Each verb that can be taken intransitively has a nor (absolutive) paradigm and possibly a nor-nori (absolutive–dative) paradigm, as in the sentence Aititeri txapela erori zaio ('The hat fell from grandfather's head'). Each verb that can be taken transitively uses those two paradigms for antipassive-voice contexts in which no agent is mentioned (Basque lacks a passive voice, and displays instead an antipassive voice paradigm), and also has a nor-nork (absolutive–ergative) paradigm and possibly a nor-nori-nork (absolutive–dative–ergative) paradigm. The last is exemplified by dizkidazue above. In each paradigm, each constituent noun can take on any of eight persons, five singular and three plural, with the exception of nor-nori-nork in which the absolutive can be only third-person singular or plural. The most ubiquitous auxiliary, izan, can be used in any of those paradigms, depending on the nature of the main verb.

There are more persons in the singular (5) than in the plural (3) for synthetic (or filamentous) verbs because of the two familiar persons—informal masculine and feminine second-person singular. The pronoun hi is used for both of them, but though the masculine form of the verb uses a -k, the feminine uses an -n. That is a property rarely found in Indo-European languages. The entire paradigm of the verb is further augmented by inflecting for "listener" (the allocutive) even if the verb contains no second person constituent. If the situation calls for the familiar masculine, the form is augmented and modified accordingly and likewise for the familiar feminine.

(Gizon bat etorri da, 'a man has come'; gizon bat etorri duk, 'a man has come [you are a male close friend]'; gizon bat etorri dun, 'a man has come [you are a female close friend]'; gizon bat etorri duzu, 'a man has come [I talk to you (Sir / Madam)]') That multiplies the number of possible forms by nearly three. Still, the restriction on contexts in which those forms may be used is strong since all participants in the conversation must be friends of the same sex and not too far apart in age. Some dialects dispense with the familiar forms entirely, but the formal second-person singular conjugates in parallel to the other plural forms, which perhaps indicates that it was originally the second-person plural and later came to be used as a formal singular, and the modern second-person plural was formulated only later as an innovation.

All other verbs in Basque are called periphrastic and behave much as participles would in English. They have only three forms in total, called aspects: perfect (various suffixes), habitual (suffix -t[z]en), and future/potential (suffix -ko/-go). Verbs of Latinate origin in Basque, as well as many other verbs, have a suffix -tu in the perfect, adapted from the Latin perfect passive -tus suffix. The synthetic verbs also have periphrastic forms, for use in perfects and in simple tenses in which they are deponent.

Within a verb phrase, the periphrastic verb comes first, followed by the auxiliary.

A Basque noun phrase is inflected in 17 different ways for case, multiplied by four ways for its definiteness and number (indefinite, definite singular, definite plural, and definite close plural: euskaldun [Basque-speaker], euskalduna [the Basque speaker, a Basque-speaker], euskaldunak [Basque-speakers, the Basque-speakers], and euskaldunok [we Basque speakers, those Basque-speakers]). The first 68 forms are further modified based on other parts of the sentence, which in turn are inflected for the noun again. It has been estimated that with two levels of recursion, a Basque noun may have 458,683 inflected forms.

The common noun liburu 'book' is declined as follows:

The proper name Mikel (Michael) is declined as follows:

Within a noun phrase, modifying adjectives follow the noun. As an example of a Basque noun phrase, etxe zaharrean 'in the old house' is morphologically analysed as follows by Agirre et al.

Basic word order in syntactic construction is subject–object–verb. The order of the phrases within a sentence can be changed for thematic purposes, whereas the order of the words within a phrase is usually rigid. As a matter of fact, Basque phrase order is topic–focus, meaning that in neutral sentences (such as sentences to inform someone of a fact or event) the topic is stated first, then the focus. In such sentences, the verb phrase comes at the end. In brief, the focus directly precedes the verb phrase. This rule is also applied in questions, for instance, What is this? can be translated as Zer da hau? or Hau zer da? but in both cases the question tag zer immediately precedes the verb da. This rule is so important in Basque that, even in grammatical descriptions of Basque in other languages, the Basque word galdegai 'focus' is used.

In negative sentences, the order changes. Since the negative particle ez must always directly precede the auxiliary, the topic most often comes beforehand, and the rest of the sentence follows. This includes the periphrastic, if there is one: Aitak frantsesa irakasten du, 'Father teaches French.'

Vocabulary

The Basque language has borrowed many words from neighboring languages, including Latin, Spanish, French, and Gascon. Many of these borrowed words are from Latin, though they have changed over time to fit Basque sounds and rules. Examples include "lore" (meaning "flower," from the Latin word "florem"), "errota" (meaning "mill," from the Latin word "rotam," which means "mill wheel"), "gela" (meaning "room," from the Latin word "cellam"), and "gauza" (meaning "thing," from the Latin word "causa").

Writing system

Basque is written using the Latin alphabet, which includes the letters ⟨ñ⟩ and sometimes ⟨ç⟩ and ⟨ü⟩. The Basque alphabet, created by Euskaltzaindia, includes the letters ⟨c, q, v, w, y⟩, but these are not used in native Basque words. Instead, they appear only in words borrowed from other languages.

Certain pairs of letters, called digraphs, are used to make specific sounds. These include ⟨dd, ll, rr, ts, tt, tx, tz⟩, and each pair is treated as two separate letters. Every letter and digraph in the Basque alphabet represents a unique sound. One exception is the letter ⟨i⟩, which can change the sound of ⟨l⟩ and ⟨n⟩ when it comes before them. This change happens in most dialects, even if the ⟨i⟩ is not written. For example, the word "Ikurriña" can also be written as "Ikurrina" without changing the pronunciation. The name "Ainhoa" includes the letter ⟨h⟩, which is not pronounced but helps prevent the ⟨n⟩ from changing its sound.

The letter ⟨h⟩ is not pronounced in most areas but is spoken in some parts of the north-east. This is why ⟨h⟩ is included in the Basque alphabet. Its use was debated during the creation of the standard alphabet because many speakers of the most common dialects did not pronounce it.

In Sabino Arana’s (1865–1903) alphabet, the digraphs ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨rr⟩ were replaced with ⟨ĺ⟩ and ⟨ŕ⟩, respectively.

A traditional style of writing is sometimes used for Basque inscriptions. This style, inspired by carvings on stone and wood, features thick lines at the ends of letters, called serifs.

Basque millers once used a special number system of unknown origin. This system used symbols arranged either vertically or horizontally. When written vertically, numbers and fractions were often placed to the side, usually at the top. When written horizontally, smaller numbers were placed on the right and larger numbers on the left. This system is based on 20, meaning it uses groups of 20 to count. Though it can represent numbers above 100, most examples only go up to 100. Fractions, especially 1⁄2, were often used.

The symbols used in this system vary slightly by region but follow similar rules. The number 5 is usually shown as a diagonal line or curve next to a vertical line, or as a "V" when written horizontally. Numbers in groups of 10 are shown with a horizontal line through the vertical. Numbers in groups of 20 are represented by circles with intersecting lines. This system is no longer commonly used but is sometimes used for decoration.

Examples

The blacksmith slave was captured from the rainforests of the West and brought to Rome. As a slave, they were given the job of blacksmithing and were required to make chains. The hot iron you take from the oven can be shaped any way you want. You could make swords so your people could break the chains, but you, the slave, are forced to make chains, and you make more chains.