Castro culture (Galician: cultura castrexa, Portuguese: cultura castreja, Asturian: cultura castriega, Spanish: cultura castreña, meaning "culture of the hillforts") is the name used by archaeologists to describe the material culture of the northwestern parts of the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day northern and central Portugal, as well as the Spanish regions of Galicia, Asturias, and western León) from the end of the Bronze Age (around 900 BC) until it was replaced by Roman culture (around 100 BC). This culture is linked to the Celtic groups known as the Gallaecians and Astures.

The most important features of this culture include walled hillforts and settlements called castros, a term from the Latin word castrum, meaning "castle." There are few visible burial sites, even though people often placed valuable items, such as swords and other metal objects, in places like rocky areas, rivers, and other water-related locations since the Atlantic Bronze Age. This cultural area stretched east to the Cares River and south into the lower Douro River valley.

The Ave Valley in Portugal was the central region of this culture, containing many small Castro settlements. Larger settlements, called oppida and cividades (from the Latin word civitas, meaning "city"), were also present. These are sometimes called citânias by archaeologists because of their city-like structures. Examples include Cividade de Bagunte (Civitas Bogonti), Cividade de Terroso (Civitas Terroso), Citânia de Briteiros, and Citânia de Sanfins.

History

The Castro culture began around 1000 BC. It started in the area between the Douro and Minho rivers, but soon spread north along the coast and east through river valleys. It reached the mountain ranges that separate the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula from the central plateau. This culture developed from the independent growth of Bronze Age communities in the Atlantic region, after the collapse of a long network that traded valuable items across the Atlantic.

Between the Mondego and Minho rivers, along the northern coast of Portugal, settlements were built in high, well-connected places during the last two centuries of the second millennium BC. These settlements were centered near the Mondego River and focused on making bronze tools and items, such as cauldrons, knives, vases, spits, swords, axes, and jewelry. These items were used by a noble group that held ritual feasts and participated in a trade network that connected the Mediterranean to the British Isles. These villages were similar to earlier Bronze Age settlements, often located near valleys and fertile farmland.

At the start of the first millennium BC, the trade network collapsed, possibly because the Iron Age made bronze and tin products less valuable in the Mediterranean. Large-scale metal production decreased, and only tools and axes were made in large numbers, many of which were found along the European Atlantic coast.

As the Bronze Age ended and the Iron Age began, settlements in fortified places replaced the earlier open villages. These early hill-forts were small, built on hills, peninsulas, or naturally protected areas. They had earthen walls, ditches, and visible from far away. The inside space was open, with a few small huts made of wood, plants, and mud, sometimes with stone walls. Each hut had a central hearth, which shaped how the space was used.

During this time, communities focused more on shared spaces and defenses than on creating items for elites. This showed a shift in power, with the community taking more control than the elites.

By the 6th century BC, the Castro culture expanded. Hundreds of new hill-forts were built, while older ones were abandoned. These new settlements were near fertile farmland and had multiple layers of defense, like walls and ditches. Some hill-forts had human remains in cists or under walls, suggesting rituals to protect the community.

During this period, settlements grew in number, size, and density. Simple huts were replaced by groups of homes, granaries, and workshops. These homes and buildings filled the hill-forts, reducing open communal spaces. These spaces were replaced by areas like saunas, halls, and shared forges.

Although many communities were self-sufficient, trade with the Mediterranean revived through Carthage, a powerful city in the western Mediterranean. Carthaginian merchants brought goods like wine, glass, pottery, and other items through trading posts called emporia. Archaeological finds, such as jewelry and clothing items, show that individuals began to value personal appearance more. These items suggest a growing class with access to special goods, even though the society was otherwise equal.

By the 2nd century BC, some hill-forts became larger fortified towns called oppida. These towns, known as cividades or cidades, had populations of a few thousand. Examples include Cividade de Bagunte (50 hectares), Briteiros (24 hectares), and Sanfins (15 hectares). Some were larger than Roman cities built later. These towns had paved streets, water systems, and planned layouts. They often had a central area called an acrópole, surrounded by ditches and walls. Gates to these towns were large and decorated with carvings of warriors.

Inside these towns, homes were arranged around central yards with fountains, drains, and storage areas. Cividade de Bagunte, in the north, was one of the largest, covering 50 hectares. It was surrounded by smaller castros, which may have acted as outposts. Some towns, like Braga, were later Roman cities, but few archaeological remains exist apart from old names and baths. Bracara Augusta became the capital of the Roman province of Gallaecia, which included lands once part of the Castro culture.

The first contact between Rome and the Castro people happened during the Punic Wars, when Carthaginians hired local fighters to battle Rome. Later, the Gallaecians supported the Lusitanians against the Romans. In 137 BC, the Roman general Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus conquered the region, earning the title "Callaicus" for his victory. Over the next century, Roman generals like Perpenna, Julius Caesar, and Augustus fought in the area. After the Romans defeated the Asturians and Cantabrians in 19 BC, evidence shows the local people submitted to Rome.

The first century BC was a time of growth and development for the Castro culture, influenced by the Romans and with a local economy.

Economy and arts

During the Bronze Age, the economy relied on using and exporting local minerals like tin and copper. People made many valuable items and sent them far away. In the Iron Age, the economy focused more on basic goods needed for daily life, as most things were made locally or traded over short distances.

In the southern coastal areas, Mediterranean merchants arrived starting in the 6th century BC. They brought imported goods like fine pottery, jewelry, wine, and glass, along with new technologies such as round granite millstones. These items mixed with local traditions.

The presence of Roman soldiers in the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula since the 2nd century BC helped local warrior leaders gain more access to valuable items and imported goods.

Pollen analysis shows that during the Iron Age, forests in Galicia and northern Portugal were cut down heavily. Fields and meadows grew where trees once stood. People used plows, sickles, hoes, and axes to grow crops like wheat, millet, rye, oats, and barley for bread and beer. They also planted beans, peas, cabbage, and flax for clothing. Vegetables like nettles and watercress were collected, and large amounts of acorns were stored in hill-forts for making bread.

Animal farming was another key part of the local economy. The Gallaecians raised cattle for meat, milk, and butter, used oxen to pull carts and plows, and relied on horses for transportation. Sheep and goats provided meat and wool, while pigs were raised for food. Wild animals like deer and boars were hunted. In coastal areas, fishing and gathering shellfish were important. Strabo wrote that people in northern Iberia used leather boats, similar to Irish currachs and Welsh coracles, for travel. Archaeologists found fishing tools and remains of sea creatures, proving that coastal communities fished.

Mining was a major activity that attracted Mediterranean traders, including Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Romans. Metals like gold, iron, copper, tin, and lead were mined. Local metalworkers refined these ores to make tools, household items, and weapons.

At the start of the first millennium BC, bronze was still widely used, but iron became more common over time. Tools like sickles, hoes, plows, and axes were made, along with domestic items like knives and cauldrons, and weapons such as swords and spearheads. During the Iron Age, some Bronze Age items, like certain types of swords and armor, were no longer made. Instead, local artisans created jewelry inspired by the Hallstatt style, with Mediterranean influences, especially in women’s jewelry. About 120 gold torcs have been found, often with unique designs that included stones for use as rattles. Other metal items included swords with antenna-shaped handles, decorated helmets, and sacrificial axes with carvings of scenes similar to Roman rituals.

Decorative designs like rosettes, triskelions, swastikas, spirals, and string-like patterns were used in art and are still seen today in Galician, Portuguese, and northern Spanish folk art. These motifs were also carved into stone and woven into clothing.

Stone was used in construction for centuries, but sculpture became more common in the 2nd century BC, especially in the south. Five main types of granite sculptures were made:

• Warrior statues: Depicted men holding swords and shields, wearing caps, helmets, torcs, and decorated clothing.
• Sitting statues: Showed gods or goddesses seated on thrones, holding cups, with Mediterranean influences.
• Severed heads: Represented dead heads, often found in hill-fort walls, more common in the north.
• Pedras formosas: Decorated slabs used in saunas.
• Architectural elements: Geometric designs like rosettes and spirals were carved into buildings.

Pottery was made locally in many styles, though wealthier people also had imported Mediterranean items. The richest pottery came from the south, with stamped or carved decorations that often showed where it was made.

Language, society and religion

In the 1st century AD, more than 700,000 people lived in the main area of the Castro culture, in hill forts and oppida. The Northern Gallaeci (Lucenses) were divided into 16 populi or tribes: Lemavi, Albiones, Cibarci, Egivarri Namarini, Adovi, Arroni, Arrotrebae, Celtici Neri, Celtici Supertamarci, Copori, Celtici Praestamarci, Cileni, Seurri, Baedui. The Astures were divided into Augustani and Transmontani, including 22 populi: Gigurri, Tiburi, Susarri, Paesici, Lancienses, Zoelae, among others. The Southern Gallaecians (Bracareses), who lived in the area of the oppida, were made up of 24 civitates: Helleni, Grovi, Leuni, Surbi, Bracari, Interamnici, Limici, Querquerni, Coelerni, Tamagani, Bibali, Callaeci, Equasei, Caladuni.

Each populi or civitas included several castella, each containing one or more hill-forts or oppida. These were independent political chiefdoms, likely led by a chief and a senate. Under Roman influence, the tribes or populi gained more importance, while smaller groups became less significant. From the start of the era, some Latin inscriptions show individuals claiming to be princeps or ambimogidus of a populi or civitas.

Names of some castles and oppida are known from epitaphs and votive Latin inscriptions (Berisamo, Letiobri, Ercoriobri, Louciocelo, Olca, Serante, Talabriga, Aviliobris, Meidunio, Durbede), from local god names on votive altars (Alaniobrica, Berubrico, Aetiobrigo, Viriocelense), and from classic authors and geographers (Adrobrica, Ebora, Abobrica, Nemetobriga, Brigantium, Olina, Caladunum, Tyde, Glandomirum, Ocelum). Some names can also be linked to modern place names, which often include Celtic words like "brigs" meaning "hill." About half of the pre-Latin place names in Roman Gallaecia were Celtic, while the rest were either non-Celtic western Indo-European or mixed names with Celtic and non-Celtic parts.

Fewer than 200 personal names are known, many of which are also found among the Lusitani, Astures, or Celtiberians. Many names have clear Celtic origins, often related to war, fame, or bravery. Some names preserve the /p/ sound, suggesting they may be Lusitanian rather than Celtic. Many names could be Celtic, Lusitanian, or from another Indo-European language. Common names include Reburrus, Camalus (related to Old Irish "cam" meaning "battle"), Caturus (from Celtic katu- "fight"), Cloutius (from Celtic klouto- "renown"), Medamus, Boutius, Lovesius, Pintamus, Ladronus, Apilus, Andamus, Bloena, Aebura/Ebura, Albura, Arius, Caelius, Caelicus (from Celtic *kaylo- "omen"), Celtiatis, Talavius, Viriatus, and others.

Some names are unique to Gallaecia, such as Artius (from Celtic arktos "bear"), Nantia/Nantius (from Celtic nant- "fight"), Cambavius (from Celtic kambo- "bent"), Vecius (likely Celtic, from PIE weik- "fight"), Cilurnius (from Celtic kelfurn- "cauldron"), Mebdius, Coralius (from PIE koro- "army"), Melgaecus (from PIE hmelg- "milk"), Loveius, Durbidia, Lagius, Laucius, Aidius (from Celtic aidu- "fire"), Balcaius, and composites like Verotius, Vesuclotus, Cadroiolo, Veroblius.

A key feature of the Castro culture (Gallaecians and western Astures) is their naming system. Unlike the Celtiberians, who used a first name followed by a patronymic (a name meaning "son of") and sometimes a reference to the gens (clan), the Castro people used a format like: "Caeleo Cadroiolonis F Cilenvs > Berisamo," meaning "Cailios, son of Cadroyolo, a Cilenian, from the hill-fort Berisamo." Similar patterns include:
– "Nicer Clvtosi > Cariaca Principis Albionum": Nicer, son of Clutosius, from the hill-fort Cariaca, prince of the Albions.
– "Apana Ambolli F Celtica Supertam(arica)> [—]obri": Apana, daughter of Ambollus, a Super-Tamaric Celt, from the hill-fort [—]obri.
– "Anceitvs Vacci F Limicvs > Talabric(a)": Ancetos, son of Vaccios, a Limic, from the hill-fort Talabriga.
– "Bassvs Medami F Grovvs > Verio": Bassos, son of Medamos, a Grovian, from the hill-fort Verio.
– "Ladronu[s] Dovai Bra[ca]rus Castell[o] Durbede": Ladronos, son of Dovaios, a Bracaran, from the castle Durbede.

The religious beliefs of the Castro culture included many local and pan-Celtic gods. Votive inscriptions, which are dedications to gods, were common and often honored deities like Cosus, Bandua, Nabia, and Reue. Hundreds of Latin inscriptions have survived with dedications to these gods. Archaeological finds, such as ceremonial axes with animal scenes and sculptures of severed heads, along with writings by classical authors, show that animal sacrifices were practiced, and possibly human sacrifices as well, similar to traditions among the Gauls and Lusitanians.

One important deity was Lugus, with five known inscriptions dedicated to him. Another key god was Cosus, whose worship sites were near settlements like Sanfins and A Coruña in Galicia. Cosus was associated with men, while Bandua was linked to both men and women, though no evidence of women worshiping at Cosus

Major sites

List of World Heritage Candidates in 2010:

• Citânia de Briteiros, Guimarães, Northern Portugal
• Citânia de Sanfins, Paços de Ferreira, Northern Portugal
• Citânia de Santa Luzia, Viana do Castelo, Northern Portugal
• Citânia do Monte Mozinho, Penafiel, Northern Portugal
• Cividade de Terroso, Póvoa de Varzim, Northern Portugal
• Cividade de Bagunte, Vila do Conde, Northern Portugal
• Cividade de Âncora, Caminha and Viana do Castelo, Northern Portugal
• Santa Trega, A Guarda, Galicia
• San Cibrao de Las, Ourense, Galicia
• Castro de São Lourenço, Esposende, Northern Portugal
• Castro de Alvarelhos, Trofa, Northern Portugal
• Castro de Carmona, Barcelos, Northern Portugal
• Castro de Eiras, Vila Nova de Famalicão, Northern Portugal
• Castro de São Julião, Vila Verde, Northern Portugal
• Castromao, Ourense, Galicia
• Outeiro Lesenho, Boticas, Northern Portugal
• Outeiro Carvalhelhos, Boticas, Northern Portugal
• Outeiro do Pópulo, Alijó, Northern Portugal
• Outeiro de Romariz, Santa Maria da Feira, Northern Portugal
• Outeiro de Baiões, São Pedro do Sul, Northern Portugal
• Outeiro de Cárcoda, São Pedro do Sul, Northern Portugal
• Borneiro, Coruña, Galicia (Spain)
• Cabeço do Vouga, Águeda, Central Portugal
• Viladonga, Lugo, Galicia

• Hill fort of Baroña, Porto do Son, Galicia
• Detail of Citânia de Sta. Luzia, Areosa, Norte Region
• Baths or sauna at Punta dos Prados hill-fort, Ortigueira, Galicia
• Castro do Padrão, Santo Tirso, Norte Region
• Partial view of a castro at Coaña, Asturias
• Citânia de Sanfins, Paços de Ferreira, Norte Region
• A romanized castro, at Viladonga, Castro de Rei, Galicia

Other Castros in Asturias (Spain):

The Cariaca Castro is not identified, as only a small amount of Castros are called with their old names (like Coaña). Important Castros in the Albion Territory, near the Nicer stele and Navia and Eo Rivers are: Coaña, Chao de Samartín, Pendía, and Taramundi.