The Catacombs of Rome (Italian: Catacombe di Roma) are ancient underground burial sites located in and around Rome. There are at least forty catacombs, some discovered as early as 1578, and others found as late as the 1950s.

More than fifty catacombs exist beneath Rome, with over 150 kilometers of tunnels running through them. Although most famous for Christian burials, either in separate areas or mixed with others, Jews and people who followed different Roman religions were also buried in catacombs starting in the 2nd century AD. This was due to an ancient Roman rule against burying people inside cities, as well as overcrowding and a lack of land. The largest and most well-known catacomb is the Christian Catacomb of Callixtus, located near the Park of the Caffarella. Other sites, both Christian and non-Christian, are found throughout the city, some now covered by modern buildings.

Christian catacombs are very important for understanding Early Christian art, as they contain most examples from before about 400 AD, including frescoes, sculptures, and gold glass medallions (these items, like most bodies, have been removed). Jewish catacombs are also important for studying Jewish culture during this early period.

Etymology

The word "catacombs" comes from the Latin word "catatumbas," which means "among the tombs" or, as some translations from Late Latin suggest, "next to the quarry." This second meaning comes from the early digging work done to build the catacombs system, which was carried out outside of Rome near a quarry.

Precursors

The Etruscan civilization controlled an area that includes the place where Rome now stands, from about 900 to 100 BC. Like many European groups, the Etruscans buried their dead in underground rooms, such as the Tomb of the Capitals, and in simpler mounds. In contrast, early Romans burned the bodies of the dead and kept the ashes in pots, urns, or chests, often placing them in special buildings called columbariums.

By the 2nd century CE, Rome had two major problems: too many people and not enough land. The city was expanding, and many buildings were four or five stories tall. Because burials were not allowed inside the city walls, and early Christians did not agree with the pagan practice of burning bodies, underground cemeteries became a practical choice. Starting around the 2nd century AD, people began to bury the dead without burning them, either in simple graves or, for those who could afford it, in elaborately carved stone coffins called sarcophagi. By the 4th century, burial had become more common than cremation, and tombs were built across the Roman Empire.

Jews and Christians often preferred burial because they believed the body should remain whole for the day of resurrection. Many ancient roads leading out of Rome, such as the Via Appia, had large tombs along their sides. Building these tombs was expensive, while digging underground burial areas, like the catacombs, was less costly.

Although many people today think catacombs were used for worship, they were likely first used only for burials. Later, people held memorials and celebrated the anniversaries of Christian martyrs there. There are sixty known underground burial chambers in Rome, built outside the city walls along major roads, including the Via Appia, Via Ostiense, Via Labicana, Via Tiburtina, and Via Nomentana. The names of some catacombs, like St. Calixtus and St. Sebastian (near the Via Appia), refer to martyrs who may have been buried there. However, most of the underground spaces used for Christian burials were created after the time of religious persecution.

Discoveries

Research shows that the population's diet included freshwater fish. Sample D9-W-XVI-8, identified as a two-year-old child, indicates that children in Ancient Rome were breastfed. This child had not yet stopped breastfeeding, as shown by the fact that the δ15N values had not started to decrease.

Fish played an important role in Roman society, both in everyday life and religious practices. It was a common part of daily meals. For Christians, fish was not only a regular food but also held special meaning. It appeared in Christian artwork and was eaten during meals meant to honor the dead.

Christian catacombs

Roman law did not allow burial places inside city limits. Because of this rule, all burial areas, including catacombs, were built outside the city walls. The first large catacombs near Rome were created starting in the 2nd century. These catacombs were carved into "tufa," a type of soft volcanic rock that becomes harder over time.

Christian catacombs were used as burial places for early Christians. These burial sites often had inscriptions and early forms of wall art. Although Jewish people started using catacombs in the first century, by the end of the sixth century, there were more than sixty Christian catacombs. These catacombs connected different Christian communities through the social and economic ideas shown in the art. The art also showed how early Christians saw the world and their hopes for how it should be.

According to L. Michael White, the catacombs of Rome are important in the romantic stories about how early Christianity developed. This is because some people believe the catacombs were hiding places where Christians could escape during times of persecution by the Roman Empire.

However, White says Christians did not use the catacombs to hide or worship secretly during persecution. He explains that persecution by the Roman Empire was not common, and the larger rooms in the catacombs were not used for regular worship, such as the Eucharist or gatherings. Instead, these rooms were used for "funerary meals," which were meals held for the dead. White says that these meals were common among many families in Rome. He adds that Christians visited the catacombs to hold memorial meals with family members who had died, just as their non-Christian neighbors did.

V. Rutgers says that researchers have proven the idea that Christians used catacombs as hiding places during persecution is false. This is because the locations of the catacombs were well known during those times. Frank K. Flinn says that during and after periods of persecution, Christians held "memorial rites and Eucharist" near the graves of famous Christian martyrs. He also says that the catacombs were not used as hiding places, as shown in movies and books. Author J. Osbourne says that the idea that Christians lived in the catacombs during persecution is completely incorrect.

Christian art in the catacombs is divided into three types: iconographic, stylistic, and technical. From the first to the sixth century, Christian art in Rome changed over time, going through three phases: an early phase, an Old Testament phase, and a New Testament phase.

Bodies were placed in stone sarcophagi inside chambers, still wearing their clothes and wrapped in linen. After burial, the chamber was sealed with a slab that had the person's name, age, and the date of their death. The frescoes inside the catacombs are the main surviving examples of early Christian art. These frescoes started with styles similar to those used to decorate Roman homes, but they adapted secular images to religious purposes. The catacomb of Saint Agnes is a small church. Some families built cubicula, which were spaces that held multiple loculi (small niches for burials) and had architectural features that allowed for decoration. Another place where art was created was the arcosolia, which were special burial spaces.

History of original tunnelling

The complicated network of tunnels that would later be called the catacombs was first dug out by the Etruscan people who lived in the area before the Romans arrived. These tunnels were created while mining for rocks like limestone and sandstone. These quarries later became the foundation for more digging. First, the Romans used them to get more rocks. Later, Christians and Jews used them as places to bury people and store bodies in large groups.

Decline and rediscovery

After the Edict of Milan in 313, many Roman Christians went in large numbers to the catacombs to find relics from the martyrs and searched through the remains. Because of this, vandalism became common in the catacombs. In 380, Christianity became the state religion. At first, many people still wanted to be buried in chambers next to the martyrs. However, the use of catacombs for burial decreased over time, and people were buried more often in church cemeteries. By the 6th century, catacombs were only used for memorial services for martyrs, though some paintings were added as late as the 700s, such as a picture of Saint Stephen in the Catacomb of Commodilla. It seems that groups like the Ostrogoths, Vandals, and Lombards who attacked Rome also damaged the catacombs, likely looking for valuables. By the 10th century, catacombs were nearly abandoned, and holy relics were moved to above-ground basilicas. Osbourne disagrees with this view, suggesting that the catacombs fell into disrepair after the Avignon Papacy moved away from Rome and that a lack of religious activity in Rome caused the catacombs to be completely abandoned.

For many years, the catacombs were forgotten until they were accidentally found in 1578. After this, Antonio Bosio spent many years exploring and studying them for his book Roma Sotterranea (1632). Archeologist Giovanni Battista de Rossi (1822–1894) did the first detailed studies about the catacombs. In 1956 and 1959, Italian officials discovered more catacombs near Rome. Today, the catacombs are an important monument of the early Christian church.

Today

The Vatican is responsible for the Christian catacombs. It has created official groups to manage them. The Pontifical Commission of Sacred Archaeology (Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra) leads excavations and repairs. The Pontifical Academy of Archaeology oversees the study of the catacombs. Some sites are managed daily by local priests or religious groups who work near or at the sites. The Salesian Fathers are well known for managing the Catacombs of St. Callixtus. In recent years, the internet has made it easier to find updated information about the catacombs. This includes details like street addresses, opening hours, fees, guide availability in different languages, group size limits, and public transportation options. Like other historical places in Italy, the catacombs may not be open during certain times of the day or on specific days of the week. They may also require online reservations. Currently, only five catacombs are open to the public: San Sebastiano, San Callisto, Priscilla, Domitilla, and Sant'Agnese.

Typology

Roman catacombs are underground tunnels with walls that have small, horizontal spaces (called loculi) carved into them. These loculi were usually arranged in rows (called pilae), stacked one above the other from floor or waist height. Each loculus could hold one or more bodies. When placed inside, bodies were often wrapped in cloth and covered with lime to help control the smell of decay. To earn more money, workers called fossors sometimes sold used loculi to others. A loculus large enough for two bodies was called a bisomus. Another burial type in catacombs was the arcosolium, which was a curved niche covered by a flat, carved stone slab. Cubicula (rooms where a family's loculi were placed) and cryptae (rooms decorated with painted artwork) were also common in catacombs. When space became limited, additional graves were carved directly into the floors of the tunnels—these were called formae.

List of catacombs in Rome

The Roman catacombs, of which there are forty in the suburbs or former suburbs, were built along the consular roads outside Rome, such as the Via Appia, the Via Ostiensis, the Via Labicana, the Via Tiburtina, and the Via Nomentana. Except for the Via Ostiensis (Italian: Via Ostiense), these ancient Latin names are also the current Italian names for these roads.

These catacombs are located on the ancient Via Labicana, now called Via Casilina in Rome, Italy. They are near the church of Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros. Their name refers to the Christian martyrs Marcellinus and Peter, who, according to tradition, were buried there near the body of St. Tiburtius.

Close to the Catacombs of San Callisto are the large Catacombs of Domitilla, named after Saint Domitilla. These catacombs cover 17 kilometers (11 miles) of caves.

In early 2009, at the request of the Vatican, the Divine Word Missionaries, a Roman Catholic group of priests and brothers, took responsibility for managing the St. Domitilla Catacombs.

These catacombs, on the Via Ostiensis, contain one of the earliest images of a bearded Christ. They originally held the relics of Saints Felix and Adauctus. Excavations at the Commodilla were conducted by Franciscan archaeologist Bellarmino Bagatti (1933–34).

Located on the Campana Road, these catacombs are said to have been the resting place, perhaps temporarily, of Simplicius, Faustinus, and Beatrix, Christian martyrs who died in Rome during the Diocletian persecution (302 or 303).

These catacombs are found along the Via Appia and were built at the end of the 2nd century. They consist of a large underground burial area, first used for pagan burials and later for Christian burials. They house tombs of Christian martyrs. In the oldest parts of the complex, there is a room called the "cubiculum of the coronation," which has a rare depiction of Christ being crowned with thorns. There is also a 4th-century painting of Susanna and the old men, shown as a lamb and wolves.

The Catacomb of Priscilla is located on the Via Salaria, across from the Villa Ada. It likely gets its name from the landowner on whose property it was built. It is cared for by the Benedictine nuns of Priscilla.

These catacombs are along the Appian Way and were built after 150 AD. They include private Christian tombs and a burial area connected to the Catholic Church. They are named after the deacon Saint Callixtus, who was appointed by Pope Zephyrinus to manage the cemetery. When Callixtus became pope, he expanded the complex, which soon became the official cemetery for the Roman Church. The arcades, where more than fifty martyrs and sixteen popes were buried, are part of a cemetery complex covering fifteen hectares. The Catacombs of San Callisto are about 90 acres large, 12 miles long, and have four levels extending more than 20 meters underground. Because many popes are buried there, it is sometimes called the "Little Vatican."

Built into the hill near San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, these catacombs are said to be the final resting place of St. Lawrence. The church was built by Pope Sixtus III and later remodeled into its current form. Sixtus also decorated the shrine in the catacomb and was buried there.

Established under the San Pacrazio basilica, built by Pope Symmachus on the site where the body of the young martyr Saint Pancras (or Pancratius) was buried, these catacombs were given to the Discalced Carmelites in the 17th century. They were completely remodeled. The catacombs house fragments of sculpture and inscriptions from pagan and early Christian times.

One of the smallest Christian cemeteries, this site is among the most accessible catacombs and is therefore one of the least preserved (only the first of the four original floors remains). On the left side of the right wall of the nave of the original basilica, rebuilt in 1933 on ancient remains, arches from the middle of the nave of the actual church (built in the 13th century) are visible. The outside of the apse of the Chapel of the Relics is also visible. Whole and broken sarcophagi, mostly from the 4th century, were found during excavations. This is where the martyrs Sebastian and Eutychius were buried.

Via a staircase, one reaches the arcades, which include various cubicula (rooms), such as the cubiculum of Giona's four-stage painting cycle from the end of the 4th century. From there, one arrives at the restored crypt of S. Sebastiano, with a table altar on the site of the ancient one (some remains of the original base still survive) and a bust of Saint Sebastian attributed to Bernini. From here, a platform leads to a sandstone cavity called "ad catacumbas," which may have given the name to this and all other tombs of this type. Three mausolea from the second half of the 2nd century (used later as well) open off the platform. The first on the right is decorated with paintings of funereal banquets and the miracle of the calling out of Cerasa's demons. Inside, there are paintings (including a ceiling painting of a Gorgon's head), inhumation burials, and an inscription reading "Marcus Clodius Hermes," the name of its owner. The second, sometimes called the "tomb of the Innocentiores" (a burial club that owned it), has a refined stucco ceiling, Latin inscriptions in Greek characters, and a graffito with the initials of the Greek words for "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour." On the left is the mausoleum of Ascia, with an exterior wall painting of vine shoots rising from kantharoi up trompe-l'œil pillars.

A room called the "Triglia"

Gallery of paintings from the catacombs of Rome

In the Catacombs of Rome, there are many different artworks. Most of these artworks are connected to religion. They show important Christian ceremonies, like baptism, or scenes and stories, such as the story of "The Three Hebrews and the Fiery Furnace," or they picture biblical figures like Adam and Eve.