Çatalhöyük is a large ancient settlement located in southern Anatolia, Turkey. It existed from about 7500 BC to 5600 BC and was most active around 7000 BC. The site is known for its size, equal treatment of people, and being a well-preserved example of early human settlements. It is located near the Konya Plain, southeast of the modern city of Konya, about 140 kilometers from Mount Hasan, a volcano with two cone-shaped peaks.

In July 2012, Çatalhöyük was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Archaeology

The site of Çatalhöyük has two mounds. These mounds are separated by an old channel of the Çarşamba River.

The site was discovered by British archaeologist James Mellaart in 1958 during a survey of the Konya Plain. Later, he led a team that dug at the site for four seasons between 1961 and 1965. These digs showed that this area of Anatolia was a center of advanced culture during the Neolithic period. Excavations uncovered 18 layers of buildings, showing different stages of the settlement and historical periods. Some experts believe that many wall paintings and drawings of lost figurines, used in other publications, were actually made by Mellaart.

Mellaart was banned from Turkey because of his role in the Dorak affair. In this event, he published drawings of supposed Bronze Age artifacts that later disappeared. After this incident, the site was not studied until 1993, when British archaeologist Ian Hodder, then at the University of Cambridge, led new excavations. Hodder’s team worked at the site until 2018. The first two years focused on surface surveys, with actual digging beginning in 1995. Hodder, who had once studied under Mellaart, chose Çatalhöyük as a test for his theory of post-processual archaeology. The project has always used digital methods, following a research plan that encourages adaptability and community involvement. According to Mickel, Hodder’s Çatalhöyük Research Project (ÇRP) became known for using modern and inclusive research methods, including computer technology, sampling, and collaboration with local groups.

At the Western Mound, where Mellaart had only dug two areas in 1961, Jonathan Last and Catriona Gibson excavated in 1998. In 2006, two teams began work at the West Mound: one led by Burçin Erdoğu and the other by Peter Biehl and Eva Rosenstock. Excavations at the site are now led by Ali Umut Türkcan from Anadolu University.

In August 2025, archaeologists led by Prof. Dr. Arkadiusz Marciniak of Poznań University discovered a mortuary structure called the “House of the Dead” or “Spiritual House.” The team found a building where the remains of 20 people were placed under the floor, suggesting it was used for rituals. The discovery also included a large ceremonial structure with painted walls and 14 platforms, as well as a smaller, plastered building.

Artifacts from the Neolithic layers at the site include textiles, which are rarely preserved in early sites. Most were found in burial contexts, often burned and broken. Many stone tools, mostly made of obsidian, were found in these layers. The most common types were blades, flakes, projectile points, scrapers, daggers, and sickle blades. Neolithic skeletons were also found, many from burials inside walls and some from secondary burials. Over 2,500 “casually baked” Neolithic clay figurines have been discovered, mostly of animals, with 187 human figures.

Culture

Çatalhöyük was made up only of homes and had no clear public buildings. Some larger rooms had decorated paintings on the walls, but the purpose of other rooms is still unknown.

Early estimates said about 5,000 to 7,000 people lived there. However, later studies using better information about where homes were built, and data about how homes were used, suggest that around 600 to 800 people lived at Çatalhöyük East during the Middle phase (6700–6500 BC). Studies from 2025 showed that the society was organized with families passing from mother to daughter, and that the culture followed matrilocality and matrilineality.

The site had many homes built close together. People relied on neighbors for help, trade, and marriage. Homes were made of mud bricks and built tightly together, forming a maze-like pattern. There were no streets or footpaths between homes. Instead, people entered homes through holes in the ceiling or doors on the sides, which were reached by ladders or stairs. Roofs acted as streets, and the ceiling holes were the only way smoke from fires could escape.

Inside homes, walls and raised platforms were covered with smooth plaster. Stairs or ladders led to rooms, usually on the south wall, where cooking areas and ovens were placed. Most homes had two rooms for daily activities like cooking and crafting. Extra rooms were used for storage and entered through small openings.

Homes were kept very clean. Archaeologists found little trash inside homes, but waste like food scraps, ash, and sewage was found outside. In good weather, people may have done activities on rooftops, which might have been used as a shared space. Later, large ovens were built on rooftops. Over time, homes were rebuilt on old rubble, creating the mound. Up to eighteen layers of homes have been found.

People buried their dead inside the village. Bones were found under floors, hearths, and platforms. Early burials included family members, but later burials had more unrelated people, showing changes in family structures. Bodies were tightly curled and placed in baskets or wrapped in reed mats. Some bones were broken, suggesting bodies might have been left outside before burial. In some graves, heads were missing and may have been used in rituals. A woman’s grave had spinning tools, and a man’s grave had stone axes. Some skulls were painted with red or blue colors, a practice seen in other Neolithic sites.

Homes had decorated paintings and figurines, including clay statues of women. No temples were found, but graves, paintings, and statues suggest a religion with many symbols. Rooms with many of these items may have been shrines or meeting places. Paintings and carvings often showed men with large phalluses, hunting scenes, wild animals like aurochs and stags, and vultures attacking headless figures. Animal heads, especially from cattle, were placed on walls. A painting of the village with nearby mountains is sometimes called the world’s oldest map, but some experts disagree, suggesting it might instead show a leopard skin or a decorative design.

Religion

A feature of Çatalhöyük is its female figurines. Mellaart, the first archaeologist to study the site, believed these carefully made figurines, created from materials like marble, limestone, and clay, represented a female deity. Although a male deity also existed, many more figurines of the female deity were found than of the male one. After a certain layer of the site, called Level VI, no male deity figurines were found. So far, eighteen layers of the site have been identified. These figurines were mostly found in areas Mellaart thought were shrines. One notable figurine, showing a goddess seated on a throne with two lionesses beside her, was discovered in a grain bin. Mellaart suggested this might have been a way to ensure a good harvest or protect the food supply.

Mellaart studied nearly 200 buildings over four seasons. In contrast, Ian Hodder, the current archaeologist, spent one entire season studying just one building. Hodder and his team, working in 2004 and 2005, found that some of Mellaart’s earlier ideas were incorrect. They discovered only one figurine similar to the Mother Goddess style Mellaart described, while most figurines did not match this style. Hodder noted that the site does not show clear signs of a society ruled by women or men.

The figurines often have full breasts, with hands resting on them, and a rounded stomach. A hole at the top suggests the head is missing. When viewed from the back, the arms are thin, and the figure shows bones like ribs, vertebrae, and pelvic bones. This could mean the figurine represents a woman turning into an ancestor, a woman connected to death, or the idea of life and death together. Some think the lines on the body might show wrapping instead of bones. This unique figurine challenges earlier views about Çatalhöyük’s society and beliefs. It suggests that female imagery might have been linked to death, not just motherhood or nurturing.

In an article, Hodder said Çatalhöyük was not a matriarchal society. He explained that men and women had similar social roles and power. He noted that the number of male and female skulls found was nearly equal, suggesting both genders had similar importance. Hodder also said men and women were treated equally in the society.

In a 2009 report, Hodder mentioned that Çatalhöyük was first studied in the 1960s, but without modern scientific methods. Mellaart, the original archaeologist, proposed many ideas about the site’s organization. However, recent studies since the 1990s have shown different views. One major change is the idea that the site is not strongly linked to a Mother Goddess or a female-led society. This is one example of how new research is changing old beliefs.

Lynn Meskell noted that earlier studies found about 200 figurines, but recent discoveries have uncovered around 2,000. Most of these show animals, with fewer than 5% depicting women.

In 1976, Estonian folklorist Uku Masing suggested Çatalhöyük’s people may have practiced a hunting and gathering religion, and the Mother Goddess figurine did not represent a goddess. He proposed that symbols for agricultural rituals might have taken longer to develop. His ideas were later discussed in a paper titled "Some remarks on the mythology of the people of Çatalhöyük."

Economy

Çatalhöyük shows strong signs of an equal society, as no homes with special features (like those belonging to leaders or religious figures) have been found. Recent studies also show little difference in social roles based on gender, with men and women receiving similar food and appearing to have the same status, similar to earlier Paleolithic groups. Children lived in areas where daily activities happened. They learned how to perform rituals and build or repair homes by watching adults create statues, beads, and other items. The layout of Çatalhöyük may reflect close family relationships among its people. The site shows two groups of people living on opposite sides of the town, separated by a ditch. Since no other nearby towns were found, this separation likely marked two groups that married within their families. This could explain how the settlement grew so large so quickly.

Pottery and tools made from obsidian were important industries. Obsidian tools were likely used and traded for items like shells from the Mediterranean and flint from Syria. Historian Murray Bookchin noted the lack of social hierarchy and economic inequality, suggesting Çatalhöyük may have been an early example of a system where resources were shared equally. However, a 2014 study suggests the situation was more complex. While cooking tools and some stone tools were evenly shared, items like unbroken quern-stones (used for grinding grain) and storage units were unevenly distributed. Personal items existed, but shared tools were also common. Evidence suggests the society may have become less equal over time, with wealth passing from one generation to the next.

In the upper layers of the site, signs of improved farming and animal care are visible. Early grains found in the Eastern Mound show that people grew different types of wheat, which helped protect food supplies from failure. Female figurines were found in storage bins holding grain, possibly representing a goddess who protected crops. Peas, almonds, pistachios, and fruit from nearby hills were also used for food. Bread and porridge were made, and remains of round ovens are found in older layers of the site.

Remains of cattle and sheep show that these animals were raised or managed. Evidence of pens and animal waste indicates some level of care for these animals. Proteins found on pottery suggest that milk from cows was consumed at the Western Mound. While farming was practiced, hunting remained a major food source, including fish, birds, and small animals like foxes and hares.

Museum

In 2023, a museum was built on the site by the Konya municipality. In October 2024, a bookshop and cafe were added to the museum. Non-Turkish visitors must pay five euros per person to enter. The museum has many interactive information kiosks, some of which provide details in English and Turkish. Detailed information about all discoveries is available in eight rooms, including an underground model of a typical home used by people 90 centuries ago.