Celtic art is connected to the people known as the Celts, who spoke Celtic languages in Europe from ancient times until today. It also includes the art of ancient groups whose language is unknown but who shared similar cultural and artistic styles with Celtic-speaking people.
Celtic art is a term that is hard to define because it covers a long time, many places, and different cultures. Some experts believe there was a continuous artistic tradition in Europe starting from the Bronze Age and earlier Neolithic period. However, most archaeologists use "Celtic" to describe the culture of the European Iron Age, which began around 1000 BC and lasted until the Roman Empire conquered much of that area. Art historians usually start discussing "Celtic art" from the La Tène period (roughly 500 BC to 1 BC). This time is sometimes called "Early Celtic art," which in Britain lasted until about 150 AD. The art of the Early Middle Ages in Britain and Ireland, which includes famous works like the Book of Kells, is called "Insular art" by historians. This is the most well-known part of Celtic art from that time, but it also includes the Pictish art of Scotland.
Both styles of Celtic art borrowed ideas from other cultures, but they often preferred geometric designs over pictures of people or animals. When figures were included, they were usually very stylized. Scenes showing stories only appeared when influenced by outside cultures. Common features include energetic circular shapes, triskeles (three-legged symbols), and spirals. Most surviving examples are made of precious metals, which might not fully represent all types of Celtic art. Large stone carvings, like Pictish stones and Insular high crosses, are rare. Some wooden statues, such as the Warrior of Hirschlanden and the "Lord of Glauberg," may have once been common.
The term "Celtic art" also includes the visual art of the Celtic Revival, which began in the 18th century and continues today. This movement was started by modern Celts, mostly in the British Isles, to express pride in their identity and culture. It became popular beyond Celtic regions and influenced many modern forms, like Celtic cross monuments and tattoos. This style often used designs copied from earlier periods, especially from Insular art. Another influence was the "vegetal" style of late La Tène art, which inspired the Art Nouveau movement.
Celtic art is usually decorative, avoiding straight lines and using symmetry only sometimes. It does not focus on copying nature as much as classical art. It uses complex symbols and has been influenced by other cultures in its knotwork, spirals, key patterns, lettering, animal shapes, plant designs, and human figures. As archaeologist Catherine Johns explained: "Across many years and places, Celtic art shows a strong sense of balance in how patterns are arranged. Curved shapes are carefully placed so that filled areas and empty spaces work together harmoniously. Artists used texture and relief carefully, and complex curved patterns were designed to fit unusual or irregular surfaces perfectly."
Background
The ancient peoples now called "Celts" spoke a group of languages that came from a common Indo-European language called Common Celtic or Proto-Celtic. Scholars once believed this shared language meant these people had a common ancestor in southwest Europe and spread their culture through migration and warfare. Archaeologists found cultural traits, such as art styles, and linked them to earlier groups like the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. More recent genetic studies show that Celtic groups may not all share the same ancestors and that culture might have spread without large movements of people. It remains unclear how Celtic language, culture, and genetics connected in ancient times.
Celtic art is linked to the Celts, who spoke Celtic languages in Europe from ancient times to the modern era. It also includes art from people whose language is unknown but who had cultural and artistic similarities to Celtic speakers.
The term "Celt" was used in ancient times to describe the Gauls (called "Celtae" in Greek). The English version of the word appeared in 1607. In the late 1600s, scholars like Edward Lhuyd studied links between Gaulish and the Brythonic and Goidelic languages, leading to the use of "Celt" for people in Britain and Ireland. In the 1700s, interest in "primitivism" and the idea of the "noble savage" sparked enthusiasm for Celtic and Druidic traditions. The Irish revival, which began after the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829, aimed to promote Irish identity. This movement later influenced similar efforts in other countries, becoming known as the "Celtic Revival."
Pre-Celtic periods
The earliest archaeological culture commonly called Celtic, known as the Hallstatt culture (from "Hallstatt C" onward), dates to the early European Iron Age, around 800 to 450 BC. However, the art from this time and later periods shows strong continuity with earlier art from the same regions. This may reflect modern ideas that Celtic culture developed through cultural exchange among a mostly stable population, rather than through large migrations or invasions. Megalithic art found worldwide often includes similar mysterious designs like circles, spirals, and curved shapes. In Europe, the most common remains are large monuments, such as the rock drawings made by the Neolithic Boyne Valley culture in Ireland. These sites are located near places where Early Medieval Insular art was later created, about 4,000 years later. Other regions, like Brittany, are also areas still considered Celtic today. Similarities also exist between the gold lunulas and large collars of Bronze Age Ireland and Europe and the torcs worn by Iron Age Celts, as both are elaborate neck ornaments. The trumpet-shaped ends of Bronze Age Irish jewelry also resemble designs used in later Celtic art.
Iron Age; Early Celtic art
The Iron Age culture of people living in areas now known as "Celtic nations" was different from the culture of people in other parts of Europe. These other areas had many large, fortified settlements, which the Romans called "oppida." The leaders of these societies had great wealth and imported expensive items from other cultures. Some of these items have been found in graves. The work of Paul Jacobsthal, a German scholar who lived in Oxford, is still the main source for studying the art of this time, especially his book Early Celtic Art from 1944.
The Halstatt culture created art with geometric patterns, often using straight lines and rectangles instead of curves. These designs were detailed and filled all available space, resembling later Celtic styles. Most linguists believe the Halstatt culture was created by people who spoke Celtic languages, but art historians often avoid calling Halstatt art "Celtic."
As Halstatt society became wealthier, it traded with other cultures, even those far away, such as in the Mediterranean. Items with very different styles, including Chinese silk, began to appear. A famous example is a large Greek bronze wine-mixing vessel found in the Vix Grave in Burgundy. It was made in Magna Graecia (southern Italy) around 530 BC and later placed in the grave. Another large Greek vessel from the Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave has three recumbent lions on its rim, one of which was replaced by a Celtic artist who did not copy the Greek style of the others. Art from the Hallstatt culture has been found as far away as Ireland, but it is mixed with local styles.
Art featuring animals and humans appears, especially in religious works. One example is "cult wagons," large bronze wheeled carts with groups of standing figures and a central bowl, likely used for offerings to gods. These have been found in graves. The figures are simple and not as detailed as those from other cultures, but they create a strong visual effect. Some stone figures have a "leaf crown," two rounded projections behind the head, possibly a symbol of divinity.
Human heads, without bodies, appear frequently in relief on many objects. During the La Tène period, faces (and sometimes bird heads) appear in abstract or plant-like designs. Some decorated objects change appearance when viewed from different angles. In full-body figures, the head is often much larger than the rest of the body. Evidence suggests the human head had special importance in Celtic religious beliefs.
The most detailed stone sculptures, including reliefs, come from southern France, near areas settled by Greeks. These may have been part of a religious sanctuary, with niches for placing the heads or skulls of enemies. These carvings date to the 3rd century BC or earlier.
Few high-quality artifacts from this time have been found compared to those from Mediterranean cultures. There is a clear difference between items used by the elite and the simpler tools used by most people. Many torcs and swords have been discovered, including over 3,000 swords from the La Tène site, which may have been offerings. However, famous finds like the Czech head, Hochdorf shoe plaques, and the Waterloo Helmet are rare and lack similar comparisons. Religious themes in art are uncommon, and the meaning of most decorations on practical items is unclear. The purpose of objects with no practical use is also unknown.
La Tène style
Around 500 BC, the La Tène style, named after a place in Switzerland, appeared quickly. This happened during a time of major changes in society, with important centers of activity moving north-west. The area with the richest archaeological finds was in northern France and western Germany. Over the next three centuries, the style spread widely, reaching places like Ireland, Italy, and modern Hungary. In some areas, the Celts were known for raiding and invading, but in others, the spread of their culture may have involved little or no movement of people. The early La Tène style combined decorative designs from other cultures, such as Scythian, Greek, and Etruscan art, into something unique. Around 500 BC, the Persian Achaemenid Empire controlled parts of Thrace and Macedonia, but the impact of this on the La Tène style is unclear. The style is described as highly stylized, using flowing curves and designs inspired by plants, vines, spirals, and shapes like lyres and trumpets.
Luxury items made of long-lasting materials, such as metal objects, are often the best-preserved artifacts besides pottery. These items do not contradict the descriptions of the Celts by ancient writers, who often portrayed them as focused on feasting, fighting, and showing off wealth. Society was led by a warrior class, and many finds include weapons, ceremonial armor, and drinking vessels. However, the rich burials typical of the earlier Hallstatt period became less common, possibly because of a shift from burying bodies to cremating them.
The torc, a type of neck ring, was a key symbol of status and was worn by many people, with materials reflecting the wearer’s wealth. Bracelets and armlets were also common. Exceptions to the lack of human figures in art and the loss of wooden objects are water sites where small carved figures, likely used as votive offerings, have been found. One such site in France produced over 10,000 fragments, now stored in Clermont-Ferrand.
The La Tène style has several phases, named in different ways, such as numeric (De Navarro) or alphabetic systems. While there is general agreement on how to divide these phases, the names used vary, and the exact order of the phases is now less certain. In one system, the "early" or "strict" phase (De Navarro I) features recognizable imported designs, followed by the "vegetal" phase (De Navarro II), where flowing, twisting plant motifs dominate. After about 300 BC, the style (De Navarro III) splits into "plastic" and "sword" styles. The "plastic" style includes high-relief decoration, while the "sword" style appears mainly on sword scabbards. Some scholars, like Vincent Megaw, have identified a "Disney style" within the plastic phase, featuring cartoon-like animal heads, and a period of art from around 125–50 BC called "Oppida period art." De Navarro also separates the art of the British Isles (up to about 100 BC) as Style IV, followed by Style V, with the distinctiveness of Insular Celtic styles widely recognized.
Before being conquered by the Romans, the wealthiest Celts in Europe often blended Roman, Greek, and other foreign styles into their art, possibly using imported craftsmen. For example, a torc from the Vix Grave has lion paws at its ends and tiny winged horses on its surface, creating an impressive but unusual design. A later British torc from the Snettisham Hoard, made 400 years later, uses a more harmonious style. The Gundestrup cauldron, the largest surviving piece of European Iron Age silver, is decorated with a mix of Celtic and non-Celtic imagery, though its origin is debated. It was found in Denmark, adding to the mystery. The Agris Helmet, made of gold leaf over bronze, clearly shows Mediterranean influences in its decoration.
By the 3rd century BC, the Celts began making coins, copying Greek and later Roman designs at first, but gradually adding their own features. For example, their coins often depicted large, wavy hairstyles and stylized horses. A unique type of mirror found in southern Britain had a handle and intricate engraved designs on its back, with a polished front surface acting as a mirror. Each of the more than 50 known mirrors has a unique design, but their circular shape likely influenced the curvilinear patterns used in their decoration.
Although Ireland is important for later Celtic art, few La Tène-style artifacts have been found there. Some Hallstatt-style items, like scabbard parts, appeared in Ireland, but La Tène-style artifacts are rare before 350–150 BC. They are mostly found in modern Northern Ireland, such as engraved scabbard plates. After this, Irish art continued to be influenced by outside cultures, even though Ireland remained outside the Roman Empire. It is unclear whether some of the most notable artifacts from this period were made in Ireland or elsewhere, such as Germany or Egypt.
In Scotland and western Britain, where the Romans and later Anglo-Saxons had limited influence, the La Tène style remained in use until it evolved into the Insular style, which served the needs of newly Christianized communities. Many finds in northern England and Scotland date after the Roman invasion of the south. However, there are few La Tène-style artifacts from the 3rd and 4th centuries in Ireland, a time of instability.
After the Roman conquests, some Celtic artistic elements remained in popular art, especially in Ancient Roman pottery. Gaul was the largest producer of pottery in the Roman Empire, making items in Italian styles as well as local designs, such as figurines of gods and decorated wares. Roman Britain produced items using Roman forms, like fibulas, but with La Tène-style decoration. For example, a "hinged brass collar" from around the time of the Roman conquest shows Celtic designs in a Roman context. Britain also used enamel more than other parts of the Empire, and some artifacts from this period are difficult to date due to their mixed styles.
Early Middle Ages
Celtic art in the Middle Ages was created by people in Ireland and parts of Britain between the 5th century and the 12th century. This time began after the Romans left Britain and ended when Romanesque art became common. The style of this art influenced many areas in Northern Europe because of the Hiberno-Scottish mission.
In Ireland, Celtic traditions continued from before the Roman era until the 12th century. Although the Romans never ruled Ireland, very few Irish objects from the Late Roman period show the La Tène style. From the 5th to 7th centuries, Irish art was similar to late Iron Age La Tène art but also showed influences from the Romans and Romano-British people. When Christianity arrived, Irish art was shaped by Mediterranean and Germanic traditions. This mix of styles created the Insular or Hiberno-Saxon style, which was most famous in the 8th and early 9th centuries. Viking attacks later disrupted monastic life. Later, Scandinavian influences appeared because of the Vikings and mixed Norse-Gael groups. Celtic art ended in 1169–1170 when the Normans invaded and brought the Romanesque style to Ireland.
Between the 7th and 9th centuries, Irish missionaries traveled to Northumbria in Britain and shared their tradition of decorating manuscripts. These Irish techniques combined with Anglo-Saxon metalworking styles in Northumbrian monasteries. These skills were then passed back to Scotland and Ireland, influencing art across England. Important metalwork pieces from this time include the Tara Brooch, the Ardagh Chalice, and the Derrynaflan Chalice. New techniques used were filigree and chip carving. New designs included interlace patterns and animal shapes. The Book of Durrow was the first complete Insular Gospel Book, and by 700, the Lindisfarne Gospels showed the full development of the Hiberno-Saxon style with colorful pages. The art form reached its peak in the late 8th century with the Book of Kells, the most detailed Insular manuscript. These styles influenced art in Europe, including Carolingian, Romanesque, and Gothic styles.
In the 9th and 11th centuries, plain silver became popular in Anglo-Saxon England, likely because of Viking trade. During this time, many silver brooches were made in Ireland. Around the same time, manuscript production declined, though this may have started before the Vikings arrived. Stone carvings called "high crosses" became common, showing biblical scenes. These crosses reached their peak in the early 10th century, with examples like Muiredach's Cross and the Ahenny High Cross.
The Vikings influenced Irish art in the late 11th century, as seen in metalwork that copied Scandinavian Ringerike and Urnes styles. Examples include the Cross of Cong and the Shrine of Manchan. These influences were found not only in Dublin but also in places like the Dorty Cross and crosses at the Rock of Cashel.
Some Insular manuscripts, like the 8th-century Lichfield Gospels and Hereford Gospels, may have been made in Wales. The 11th-century Ricemarch Psalter was definitely created in Wales and shows Viking influences.
Art from historic Dumnonia, which includes modern-day Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, and Brittany, is less well known because these areas were later part of England and France. However, archaeological finds like Cadbury Castle, Tintagel, and Ipplepen suggest a complex society with connections to the Byzantine Mediterranean, Ireland, and Britain. Stones like King Doniert's Stone and the Artognou stone show a mix of languages and cultures. Few Breton and Cornish manuscripts remain, but the Bodmin manumissions show an Insular style.
From the 5th to mid-9th centuries, Pictish art is mainly known through stone carvings and a few metal objects. There are no known illuminated manuscripts. The Picts lived in Scotland and had cultural connections with Ireland and Northumbria. After Christianity spread, Insular styles influenced Pictish art, especially interlace patterns.
The Whitecleuch Chain, a silver chain with Pictish symbols, is similar to a torc. These symbols also appear on plaques from the Norrie's Law hoard. The St Ninian's Isle Treasure, found near Pictland, includes silver brooches and other items, showing high-quality Pictish metalwork from around 800 AD.
Pictish stones are divided into three classes by scholars. Class I stones are unshaped standing stones with symbols like abstract designs, animals, and daily objects. These stones are found in northeast Scotland. Class II stones are shaped cross-slabs with crosses decorated in the Insular style. They also show Pictish symbols and scenes of people, animals, and battles. Class III stones follow the Pictish style but lack symbols and are mostly cross-slabs or recumbent stones.
Celtic revival
The revival of interest in Celtic visual art happened later than the revival of interest in Celtic literature. By the 1840s, copies of Celtic brooches and other metalwork became popular, starting in Dublin and later in Edinburgh, London, and other countries. This interest grew after the Tara Brooch was discovered in 1850. The brooch was displayed in London and Paris for many years. In the late 1800s, large Celtic crosses were reintroduced for graves and memorials. This practice has lasted longer than other aspects of the revival and spread beyond areas with Celtic heritage. A design called interlace is often seen on these crosses and was later used in American architecture around 1900 by architects like Louis Sullivan and in stained glass and wall stenciling by Thomas A. O'Shaughnessy. The "plastic style" of early Celtic art influenced the Art Nouveau decorative style, especially in the work of designer Archibald Knox, who created designs for Liberty & Co.
The Arts and Crafts Movement in Ireland adopted the Celtic style early but began to move away from it in the 1920s. Thomas Bodkin, the governor of the National Gallery of Ireland, wrote in 1921 that global art had become more diverse and less focused on national traditions. George Atkinson, who wrote the foreword to an exhibition catalog, noted that the society no longer supported overemphasizing Celtic designs at the expense of good art. The Celtic style had helped promote Irish identity but later fell out of favor as new artistic trends emerged.
Interlace, a design often linked to Celtic art, was actually also used in Germanic and Scandinavian medieval art. It remains a popular design in Celtic countries, especially Ireland, where it is a national style. In recent years, interlace has appeared in tattoos and in fantasy stories set in medieval times. The 2009 animated film The Secret of Kells features designs inspired by the Book of Kells.
By the 1980s, a new Celtic Revival began, often called the Celtic Renaissance. By the 1990s, more artists, craftsmen, and designers were creating Celtic-themed jewelry and crafts. This movement became global, with participants from many countries.
In 2017, June 9 was named International Day of Celtic Art by contemporary artists and supporters. The day includes events like exhibitions, workshops, and gatherings. The first International Day of Celtic Art Conference was held in Andover, New York, from June 6 to 9, 2019, with attendees from Scotland, Ireland, the United States, and Canada. The second conference took place in Downpatrick, Northern Ireland, from June 8 to 11, 2023. Future conferences will be held every two years.