The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest and most well-known pyramid in Egypt. It is part of the Giza pyramid complex and is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is the only one of these wonders that still stands mostly as it was built. The pyramid was built as a tomb for Pharaoh Khufu, who ruled during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Construction began around 2600 BC and took about 26 years to complete.
When first built, the pyramid was 146.6 meters (481 feet) tall, making it the tallest human-made structure in the world for over 3,700 years. Over time, much of the smooth white limestone covering the pyramid was removed, reducing its height to about 138.5 meters (454.4 feet) today. The base of the pyramid is about 230.3 meters (755.6 feet) on each side, and its total volume is roughly 2.6 million cubic meters (92 million cubic feet), including an internal hill-like structure. The pyramid’s original height was 280 royal cubits (146.7 meters; 481.4 feet), with a base length of 440 cubits (230.6 meters; 756.4 feet).
The pyramid was built using about 2.3 million large stone blocks, totaling 6 million tonnes. Most of the stones were not uniform in size or shape and were only roughly shaped. The outer layers were held together with mortar, and most of the stone came from the Giza Plateau. Other stones, such as white limestone from Tura and granite from Aswan (some weighing up to 80 tonnes), were transported by boat along the Nile.
Inside the pyramid, there are three known chambers. The lowest chamber was carved into the bedrock beneath the pyramid but was never completed. The Queen’s Chamber and King’s Chamber, which contain a granite sarcophagus, are located above ground. Some believe Hemiunu, Khufu’s vizier, was the pyramid’s architect. Scientists and researchers have proposed many theories about how the pyramid was built, but no single explanation is certain.
The area around the pyramid includes two mortuary temples connected by a causeway, tombs for Khufu’s family and court, three smaller pyramids for his wives, a smaller satellite pyramid, and five buried solar barques. The pyramid is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Memphis and its Necropolis."
Purpose
The Great Pyramid of Giza was the tomb of Pharaoh Khufu, and it still contains his granite sarcophagus. Like other tombs of Egyptian elites, it had four main purposes:
"Make your grave well furnished and prepare thy place in the west. Look, death counts little for us. Look, life is valued highly by us. The house of the dead (the tomb) is for life."
— Excerpt from the Instruction of Hardjedef (son of Khufu)
In ancient Egypt, high social status was seen as very positive. Big differences in wealth and status were shown by the size of tombs—gigantic pyramids for kings and queens, and smaller mastabas for others. Official rules controlled how large tombs could be, with allowed sizes written in royal orders. During the Old Kingdom, only kings and queens could have pyramid tombs. How buildings were designed and what items were included in tombs were also controlled by the king, along with access to materials and workers.
The internal chambers of the Great Pyramid do not have inscriptions or decorations, which was normal for Egyptian tombs from the fourth to late fifth dynasty, except for markings left by workers that include Khufu’s name. Built around 2600 BC, the pyramid was made before the custom of writing text on pyramids became common.
The pyramid complex of Khufu included two temples that were decorated and inscribed. The pyramid temple was linked to the Sed festival, which celebrated Khufu’s 30th year on the throne. Surviving images show Khufu, officials, priests, and others performing rituals. The valley temple has not been fully explored, but blocks reused later by Amenemhat I show scenes like boat trips and symbols of Khufu’s estates (e.g., "Khufu is beautiful"). The religious practices connected to Khufu’s tomb, which lasted for hundreds of years, suggest he was successfully buried in the Great Pyramid. Evidence that Khufu’s son and successor, Djedefre, oversaw the funeral comes from his name carved on blocks that sealed boat pits near the pyramid.
The Great Pyramid may have been robbed as early as the First Intermediate Period and later reused. Arab writers described finding mummies and treasures inside the pyramid. For example, Al-Maqrizi (1364–1442) wrote about discovering three wrapped bodies, a sarcophagus filled with gold, and a body in golden armor with a sword of great value and a ruby as large as an egg.
Attribution to Khufu
Historically, the Great Pyramid was believed to be built by Khufu, as written by ancient authors like Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus. During the Middle Ages, other people were also credited with building the pyramid, such as Joseph from the Book of Genesis, Nimrod, or the legendary king Saurid ibn Salhouk.
In 1837, four additional relieving chambers were discovered above the King’s Chamber after digging to reach them. These chambers, which had never been accessible before, were covered in hieroglyphs painted in red. The workers who built the pyramid marked the stone blocks with the names of their groups, which included the pharaoh’s name, such as “The gang, The white crown of Khnum-Khufu is powerful.” The name of Khufu was written on the walls more than a dozen times. Another inscription was found by Goyon on an outside block of the pyramid’s fourth layer. These markings are similar to those found at other locations linked to Khufu, like the alabaster quarry at Hatnub or the harbor at Wadi al-Jarf, and also appear in pyramids of other pharaohs.
Throughout the 20th century, cemeteries near the pyramid were explored. Family members and high officials of Khufu were buried in the East Field, south of the causeway, and the West Field, which included Khufu’s wives, children, grandchildren, Hemiunu, Ankhaf, and the funerary cache of Hetepheres I, Khufu’s mother. As Hassan explained, “Since early dynastic times, it was customary for relatives, friends, and courtiers to be buried near the king they served in life. This practice aligned with the Egyptian belief about the afterlife.”
These cemeteries were expanded until the 6th dynasty and used less often afterward. The earliest pharaonic name found on seal impressions is Khufu, and the latest is Pepi II. Worker graffiti were also found on some tomb stones, such as “Mddw” (Medjedu, the Horus name of Khufu) on the mastaba of Chufunacht, likely a grandson of Khufu.
Some inscriptions in the chapels of mastabas mention Khufu or his pyramid. For example, an inscription by Mersyankh III states, “Her mother [is the] daughter of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Khufu.” These references often appear as titles, such as “Chief of the Settlement and Overseer of the Pyramid City of Akhet-Khufu” or “priest of Khufu who presides over the pyramid Akhet-Khufu.” Some tomb owners included the king’s name in their own names, like Chufudjedef, Chufuseneb, or Merichufu. The earliest pharaoh mentioned in this way at Giza is Snefru, Khufu’s father.
In 1936, Hassan uncovered a stela of Amenhotep II near the Great Sphinx of Giza, which suggests that the two larger pyramids were still associated with Khufu and Khafre during the New Kingdom. The stela reads: “He yoked the horses in Memphis, when he was still young, and stopped at the Sanctuary of Hor-em-akhet (the Sphinx). He spent time there, looking at the beauty of the Sanctuary of Khufu and Khafra the revered.”
In 1954, two boat pits were discovered buried near the base of the pyramid. One contained the Khufu ship. The cartouche of Djedefre was found on many blocks covering the boat pits. As Khufu’s successor and eldest son, Djedefre may have been responsible for Khufu’s burial. The second boat pit was examined in 1987, and excavation began in 2010. Graffiti on the stones included four instances of the name “Khufu,” 11 instances of “Djedefre,” a date (year, season, month, and day), measurements of the stone, various signs, and a reference line used in construction, all written in red or black ink.
During excavations in 2013, the Diary of Merer was found at Wadi al-Jarf. It describes the transportation of white limestone blocks from Tura to the Great Pyramid, which was referred to by its original name, Akhet Khufu (with a pyramid symbol), many times. The diary notes that the stones were received at She Akhet-Khufu (“the pool of the pyramid Horizon of Khufu”) and Ro-She Khufu (“the entrance to the pool of Khufu”), which were supervised by Ankhhaf, Khufu’s half-brother and vizier, and the owner of the largest mastaba in the Giza East Field.
Age
The Great Pyramid’s age has been determined using two main methods. One method is indirect, based on its connection to Khufu, an ancient Egyptian king. This connection is supported by historical records and archaeological findings. The second method is direct, using radiocarbon dating of organic materials found in the pyramid’s mortar.
In the past, the pyramid was dated by linking it to Khufu’s reign. This meant that figuring out when the pyramid was built relied on understanding when Khufu and the 4th dynasty ruled. This method focused on the order and timing of historical events.
Absolute calendar dates are based on a complex network of evidence, such as king lists and other ancient texts that describe the line of rulers. By adding up the lengths of kings’ reigns and using other sources like genealogy, astronomy, and other historical data, scholars created a timeline for Egypt’s history. This timeline is mainly based on political events, not other types of evidence like layers of soil or materials found in the ground.
Most recent estimates place Khufu and his pyramid between 2700 and 2500 BC.
Mortar was used widely in the Great Pyramid’s construction. During the mixing process, ashes from fires were added to the mortar, which contains organic material that can be tested for radiocarbon dating. In 1984 and 1995, 46 samples of the mortar were collected to ensure they were part of the original structure. These samples were tested and found to date between 2871 and 2604 BC. A challenge called the "old wood problem" may have caused a 100- to 300-year difference in the results, as the age of the organic material was measured, not when it was last used. A later analysis of the samples suggested the pyramid was completed between 2620 and 2484 BC.
In 1872, Waynman Dixon discovered the lower "Air-Shafts" in the Queen’s Chamber by chiseling holes in the walls. Inside, he found a cedar plank, which was later donated to a museum. The plank was broken and mislabeled, so it was not recognized until 2020, when it was tested and found to be over 500 years older than Khufu’s reign. Some experts believe the wood came from a very old tree or had been reused before being placed in the pyramid.
Around 450 BC, the Greek historian Herodotus incorrectly linked the Great Pyramid to a king named Cheops (a Greek version of Khufu’s name) and placed his reign after a later period in Egyptian history. About 200 years later, a writer named Manetho created a list of Egyptian kings, grouping them into dynasties and placing Khufu in the 4th dynasty. Over time, the Egyptian and Greek languages changed, leading to different spellings of Khufu’s name, such as "Souphis."
In 1646, John Greaves struggled to determine the pyramid’s construction date because historical records were unclear or conflicting. He did not recognize Khufu on Manetho’s list and relied on Herodotus’ incorrect account. By adding up the lengths of royal reigns, Greaves estimated Khufu’s reign began around 1266 BC.
Two hundred years later, discoveries like the Turin, Abydos, and Karnak king lists helped clarify Manetho’s timeline. The name "Khufu" found in the pyramid’s relieving chambers confirmed that Cheops and Souphis refer to the same king. This helped scholars recognize the Great Pyramid was built during the 4th dynasty. However, Egyptologists still disagreed on the exact date, with estimates ranging from around 4000 to 2000 BC, depending on the methods used and the sources they trusted.
By the 20th century, estimates became more precise, mostly falling within 250 years of each other, around the middle of the third millennium BC. Radiocarbon dating confirmed that the historical timeline was roughly correct, though it still has limits, such as calibration errors and the "inbuilt age" of plant materials. Some researchers have also studied the pyramid’s astronomical alignments to estimate its construction date.
Today, Egyptologists continue to refine the timeline by combining data from different fields, such as luminescence dating, radiocarbon dating, and tree ring dating. For example, a study by Ramsey and others used over 200 radiocarbon samples to improve accuracy.
Historiographical record
The ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who wrote in the 5th century BC, was one of the first major authors to describe the pyramid. In the second part of his book The Histories, he wrote about Egypt and the Great Pyramid. His account was created more than 2,000 years after the pyramid was built, so he relied mostly on secondhand information from people like low-ranking Egyptian officials, priests, local Egyptians, Greek immigrants, and his own translators. Because of this, his descriptions mix clear facts, personal observations, incorrect details, and stories that are not true. Many misunderstandings about the pyramid can be traced back to Herodotus’s work.
Herodotus claimed the Great Pyramid was built by Khufu, whom he called Cheops. However, he was wrong about the time when Khufu ruled, placing him after the Ramesside Period (the 19th and 20th dynasties). Herodotus described Khufu as a cruel king, which may explain why he believed such large buildings required forced labor. He said 100,000 workers built the pyramid in three-month shifts over 20 years. The first 10 years were used to build a long causeway, which Herodotus called almost as impressive as the pyramid itself. The causeway was nearly 1 kilometer (0.62 miles) long, 20 yards (18.3 meters) wide, and 16 yards (14.6 meters) high, made of polished stone with carved figures.
Underground chambers were built on the hill where the pyramids stand. These were meant to be Khufu’s burial places and were supplied with water from a channel brought from the Nile. Later, Herodotus wrote that at the Pyramid of Khafre (next to the Great Pyramid), the Nile flows through a built passage to an island where Khufu is buried. This is thought to refer to the "Osiris Shaft" near the causeway of Khafre.
Herodotus described an inscription on the pyramid’s outside that, according to his translators, listed the amount of radishes, garlic, and onions given to workers. This may have been a note about restoration work done by Khaemweset, the son of Pharaoh Rameses II. Herodotus’s companions and translators likely could not read hieroglyphs or gave him incorrect information.
Between 60 and 56 BC, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus visited Egypt and wrote about the country in his book Bibliotheca historica. He was influenced by earlier historians but criticized Herodotus for telling myths. Diodorus probably used the lost work of Hecataeus of Abdera and incorrectly placed the pyramid’s builder, "Chemmis" (Khufu), after Pharaoh Ramses III. He claimed neither Khufu nor Khafre were buried in their pyramids but in secret places to avoid revenge from workers. This idea linked pyramid building to slavery.
Diodorus noted the pyramid’s outer layer was still in good condition, with a 6-cubit (3.1-meter) high platform at the top. He said ramps were used to build the pyramid because lifting tools had not yet been invented. He estimated 360,000 workers built the pyramid in 20 years. Like Herodotus, he mentioned an inscription on the pyramid’s side that listed the cost of vegetables and medicine for workers.
Around 25 BC, the Greek geographer Strabo visited Egypt after it was taken over by the Romans. In his work Geographica, he wrote that pyramids were burial places for kings but did not name the specific king. He described a stone on the pyramid’s side that could be removed to reveal a slanted passage to the tomb. This detail led to much speculation about how the pyramid could be entered.
In the first century AD, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder wrote that the Great Pyramid was built to keep lower-class people busy or to protect the pharaoh’s wealth from rivals. He did not name the pharaoh, saying the names of those who built the pyramid had been forgotten. Pliny suggested two ways the stones might have been moved: using large piles of salt and a chemical called nitre, which were melted with water from the Nile, or building temporary bridges that were later used for housing. He also wrote about a deep well inside the pyramid that connected to the Nile and a method by Thales of Miletus to measure the pyramid’s height using its shadow.
During late antiquity, some people began to think the pyramids were "Joseph’s granary," a place to store grain. The first written record of this idea came from a Christian pilgrim named Egeria, who visited Egypt between 381 and 384 AD and said the pyramids were built by Joseph to store grain. This idea later appeared in writings by monks and in a book called Cosmographia by Julius Honorius in 376 AD. In 530 AD, Stephanos of Byzantium linked the word "pyramid" to the Greek word pyros, meaning wheat.
In 642 AD, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered Egypt, ending Roman and Byzantine rule. Centuries later, in 832 AD, the Abbasid caliph al-Ma’mun is said to have tunneled into the pyramid and found an ascending passage and chambers. Around this time, a Coptic legend claimed the Great Pyramid was built by an ancient king named Surid Ibn Salhouk. According to the story, Surid had a dream about the end of the world and built the pyramids to preserve Egypt’s knowledge for the future. This legend was later written about by the historian al-Masudi in his book Akbar al-zaman.
Construction
The pyramid stands on a hill-like base. This base was shaped into steps and only the outer edge was made flat, which is level within 21 millimetres (0.8 inches). The bedrock beneath the pyramid reaches nearly 6 metres (20 feet) above the pyramid’s base at the location of the Grotto.
Along the edges of the base, several holes were carved into the bedrock. Lehner believed these holes held wooden posts used to help align the pyramid. Edwards and others suggested water might have been used to smooth the base, but it is unclear how effective this method would have been.
The Great Pyramid is made of about 2.3 million stone blocks. Approximately 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite, and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in its construction.
Most of the blocks were quarried near Giza, in an area now called the Central Field. These blocks are a type of limestone containing tiny fossilized shells, which can still be seen in some blocks. Other fossils, such as shark teeth, have been found in the blocks and nearby structures. The white limestone used for the pyramid’s outer covering was brought by boat from the Tura quarries, located about 10 km (6.2 miles) southeast of Giza. In 2013, papyrus scrolls known as the Diary of Merer were discovered, which recorded the transport of limestone from Tura to Giza during the 27th year of Khufu’s reign.
The granite stones used in the pyramid came from Aswan, over 900 km (560 miles) south. The largest granite blocks, weighing between 25 and 80 tonnes, were used to build the ceiling of the King’s chamber and the rooms above it. Ancient Egyptians cut stone by hammering grooves into natural rock, inserting wooden wedges, and soaking them with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, breaking off pieces of stone. Once cut, the blocks were transported by boat along the Nile and then moved closer to the pyramid site using a now-dry branch of the river.
Ancient Greeks believed slaves built the pyramid, but modern discoveries at nearby worker camps suggest it was constructed by thousands of conscripted laborers.
Graffiti found at Giza indicates that workers were organized into groups called zau (singular za), each consisting of 40 men divided into four smaller teams, each led by an "Overseer of Ten."
To understand how over two million blocks could have been cut within Khufu’s lifetime, stonemason Franck Burgos conducted an experiment using tools found in an abandoned quarry from Khufu’s time. These tools included hardened copper chisels, wooden mallets, ropes, and stone tools. In the experiment, four workers took four days (working six hours each day) to cut a 2.5-tonne block. The process sped up six times when the stone was wet. Based on this, Burgos estimated that about 3,500 workers could have produced 250 blocks per day, completing the pyramid in 27 years.
A 1999 study by Egyptologists, including Mark Lehner, estimated the project required an average workforce of about 13,200 people and a peak workforce of about 40,000.
The first precise measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Flinders Petrie between 1880 and 1882, published in The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. Many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks fit together with high precision, with joints averaging only 0.5 millimetres (0.02 inches) wide. Core blocks were less precisely shaped, with gaps filled with rubble and mortar.
The height and weight of the blocks decrease as the pyramid rises. Petrie measured the lowest layer to be 148 centimetres (4.86 feet) high, while the upper layers are less than 50 centimetres (1.6 feet) high.
The pyramid’s base is extremely accurate. The average error in the length of each side is only 58 millimetres (2.3 inches), and the base is aligned to the cardinal directions with a corner error of just 12 seconds of arc.
The original design of the pyramid was 280 royal cubits (146.7 metres; 481.4 feet) high and 440 cubits (230.6 metres; 756.4 feet) long on each side. The ancient Egyptians used a method called seked to describe the pyramid’s slope, which for the Great Pyramid was 5 + 1/2 palms, equivalent to a ratio of 14 to 11.
Some Egyptologists suggest the slope was chosen because the ratio of the pyramid’s perimeter to its height (1760/280 cubits) closely matches the value of π (pi) with an accuracy better than 0.05 percent. Petrie noted that these relationships were likely intentional in the pyramid’s design. Others argue that the ancient Egyptians did not use π and that the slope was determined by the seked alone.
The sides of the pyramid’s base are aligned with the four geographic (not magnetic) cardinal directions, deviating by an average of 3 minutes and 38 seconds of arc, or about a tenth of a degree. Several theories have been proposed to explain how the ancient Egyptians achieved this precision.
John Romer suggests the builders used a full-scale ground plan to lay out the pyramid’s design, allowing for precise construction.
Basalt blocks from the pyramid’s temple show clear signs of having been cut with a large saw, estimated to be 15 feet (4.6 metres) long. Romer theorizes this "super saw" may have had copper teeth and required at least a dozen workers to operate. It might have been used with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery, or powdered quartz to shape the blocks.
Casing
At the time it was completed, the Great Pyramid was completely covered in white limestone. Blocks that were carefully shaped were placed in horizontal layers and fitted together with mortar. The outer sides of these blocks were cut at an angle and smoothed to a high level of precision. These blocks formed four even sides, each angled at 51°50'40" (a seked of 5 + 1/2 palms). Unfinished casing stones from the pyramids of Menkaure and Henutsen at Giza suggest that the outer surfaces were smoothed only after the stones were placed, with carved seams showing where the stones were correctly positioned and where extra rock was removed.
The height of the horizontal layers is not the same and changes a lot. The tallest of the 203 remaining layers are near the bottom, with the first layer being the tallest at 1.49 metres (4.9 feet). As the layers go higher, they become slightly more than 1 royal cubit (0.5 metres; 1.7 feet) in height, with each stone weighing about 500 kilograms (1,100 pounds). When looking at the sizes in order, an irregular pattern is noticeable, where the height of the layers decreases steadily before rising sharply again.
Stones called "backing stones" supported the casing stones. These were also carefully shaped and attached to the casing stones with mortar. Today, these stones are the only visible parts of the structure after the pyramid was partially taken apart in the Middle Ages. During earthquakes in northern Egypt, many of the outer casing stones were removed. It is said that Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan took them away in 1356 to use in nearby Cairo.
Later explorers found large piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids, left from the continued collapse of casing stones. These were later cleared during ongoing excavations of the site. Today, a few of the lowest casing stones can still be seen in place on each side, with the best-preserved ones located on the north side near the entrances, uncovered by Vyse in 1837.
The mortar used was tested using chemistry and was found to contain organic materials, mostly charcoal. These materials were dated using radiocarbon methods to between 2871–2604 BC. It has been suggested that the mortar allowed masons to place the stones exactly by creating a level surface.
Although some people think that some or all of the casing stones were made from a type of concrete that was poured into place instead of being quarried and moved, archaeological evidence and petrographic analysis show this was not the case.
In 1880, Petrie noted that the four sides of the pyramid were "very distinctly hollowed" and that "each side has a sort of groove specially down the middle of the face," which he believed was caused by thicker casing stones in these areas. Under certain lighting and with image enhancement, the sides can appear split, leading to the idea that the pyramid might have been intentionally built with eight sides. However, laser scanning and photogrammetric surveys concluded that the indentations on the four sides were caused by the removal of casing stones, which damaged the blocks that form the outer surface today.
Pyramidion and missing tip
The top of the pyramid was once covered by a capstone called a pyramidion. The material used to make it is not certain, but people often suggest limestone, granite, or basalt. In popular stories, it is sometimes described as made of solid gold, gilded, or electrum. However, all known pyramidia from the 4th dynasty (including the Red Pyramid, the Satellite Pyramid of Khufu, and the Queen's Pyramid of Menkaure) were made of white limestone and were not gilded. Evidence of gilded capstones appears only from the 5th dynasty onward. For example, a scene on the causeway of Pharaoh Sahure mentions a "white gold pyramidion" for his pyramid.
The Great Pyramid's pyramidion was already missing by classical times, as reported by Pliny the Elder and later writers who described a platform at its peak. Over time, more stones were removed from the top, and today the pyramid is about 8 meters (26 feet) shorter than when it was first built. Approximately 1,000 tonnes (2,200,000 pounds) of material are missing from the top.
In 1874, a mast was placed on the pyramid's top by Scottish astronomer David Gill. He was invited to survey Egypt after observing a rare Venus transit. His measurements of the Great Pyramid were accurate to within 1 millimeter. The mast was damaged in 2019 by a man who climbed the pyramid and avoided security. However, because the mast was replaced over time due to erosion and was considered a modern addition, the person did not break Egypt's strict laws about protecting ancient artifacts.
Interior
Inside the pyramid, there are three main chambers: the King's Chamber, the Queen's Chamber, and the Subterranean Chamber. These chambers are connected by the Grand Gallery and several corridors and shafts. None of the interior walls were decorated or inscribed, as was common for tombs of the 4th dynasty, except for marks and names left by work teams on blocks of the relieving chambers.
There are two entrances into the pyramid: the original entrance and a forced passage. These two paths meet at a junction. One passage leads downward to the Subterranean Chamber, while the other goes upward to the Grand Gallery. From the start of the Grand Gallery, three paths branch off.
Both the King's and Queen's Chambers have small "air-shafts." Above the King's Chamber, there are five relieving chambers.
The original entrance is on the north side of the pyramid, 15 royal cubits (7.9 meters or 25.8 feet) east of the pyramid's centerline. Before the casing stones were removed in the Middle Ages, the pyramid was entered through a hole in the 19th layer of masonry, about 17 meters (56 feet) above the pyramid's base. The height of this layer—96 centimeters (3.15 feet)—matches the size of the entrance tunnel called the Descending Passage. According to Strabo (64–24 BC), a movable stone could be raised to enter this sloping corridor, though it is unclear if this was original or added later.
A row of double chevrons helps redirect weight away from the entrance. Many of these chevron blocks are missing, as shown by the slanted faces where they once rested.
Numerous, mostly modern, graffiti is carved into the stones near the entrance. The most notable is a large square text of hieroglyphs honoring Frederick William IV, created by Karl Richard Lepsius's Prussian expedition in 1842.
In 2016, the ScanPyramids team used muography to detect a cavity behind the entrance chevrons. This discovery was confirmed in 2019 to be a corridor at least 5 meters (16 feet) long, running horizontally or sloping upward (not parallel to the Descending Passage).
In February 2023, the North Face Corridor was explored with an endoscopic camera. It revealed a horizontal tunnel 9 meters (30 feet) long and about 2 by 2 meters (6.6 by 6.6 feet) wide. Its ceiling is made of large chevrons, similar to those above the original entrance and those in the relieving chambers.
Today, tourists enter the Great Pyramid through the Robbers' Tunnel, which was cut through the pyramid's masonry long ago. The entrance was forced into the 6th and 7th layers of the casing, about 7 meters (23 feet) above the base. After traveling 27 meters (89 feet) straight and horizontal, the tunnel turns sharply left to reach the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. From this point, access to the Descending Passage is possible, though it is usually restricted.
The origin of the Robbers' Tunnel is debated by scholars. According to tradition, it was opened around 820 AD by Caliph al-Ma'mun's workers using a battering ram. The digging caused a stone in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to fall, revealing the entrance to the Ascending Passage. Unable to remove the blocking stones, the workers tunneled upward through softer limestone until reaching the Ascending Passage.
However, some scholars argue that the tunnel was carved shortly after the pyramid was sealed and later used by robbers before being resealed. This theory is supported by the report of patriarch Dionysius I Telmaharoyo, who claimed a breach in the pyramid's north face already existed before al-Ma'mun's expedition. This suggests a robber's tunnel may have existed before the caliph's time, and he expanded it.
From the original entrance, a passage descends through the pyramid's masonry and into the bedrock below, leading to the Subterranean Chamber. The passage has a slanted height of 4 Egyptian feet (1.2 meters or 3.9 feet) and a width of 2 cubits (1.0 meter or 3.4 feet). Its angle of 26°26'46" corresponds to a 1-to-2 slope.
After 28 meters (92 feet), the lower end of the Ascending Passage is reached. A square hole in the ceiling, blocked by granite stones, may have originally been hidden. To avoid these stones, a short tunnel was dug to connect with the Robbers' Tunnel. This tunnel was later expanded and fitted with stairs.
The passage continues to descend for another 72 meters (236 feet), now through bedrock instead of the pyramid's structure. Lazy guides once blocked this section with rubble to avoid leading visitors up and down the long shaft. This practice stopped around 1902 when Covington installed a padlocked iron grill door. Near the end of this section, a vertical shaft connects to the Grand Gallery.
A horizontal shaft connects the end of the Descending Passage to the Subterranean Chamber. It is 8.84 meters (29 feet) long, 85 centimeters (2.79 feet) wide, and 91–95 centimeters (2.99–3.12 feet) high. A recess is located near the end of the western wall, slightly larger than the tunnel, with an irregular, undressed ceiling.
The Subterranean Chamber, also called the "Pit," is the lowest of the three main chambers and the only one carved into the bedrock beneath the pyramid. It is located about 27 meters (89 feet) below the pyramid's base and measures roughly 16 cubits (8.4 meters or 27.5 feet) north-south by 27 cubits (14.1 meters or 46.4 feet) east-west, with an approximate height of 4 meters (13 feet). The western half of the chamber, except for the ceiling, is unfinished, with trenches left by quarry workers running east to west. A niche was cut into the northern half of the west wall. The only access to the chamber is through the Descending Passage, located on the eastern end of the north wall.
Although known in ancient times, as mentioned by Herodotus and later writers, the chamber was forgotten during the Middle Ages. It was rediscovered in 1817 when Giovanni Caviglia cleared the rubble blocking the Desc
Pyramid complex
The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a group of buildings, including small pyramids.
The Pyramid Temple, located on the east side of the pyramid, measured 52.2 meters (171 feet) from north to south and 40 meters (130 feet) from east to west. Most of it has disappeared, leaving only some black basalt paving. Only a few parts of the causeway, which connected the pyramid to the valley and the Valley Temple, remain. The Valley Temple is buried under the village of Nazlet el-Samman. Basalt paving and limestone walls have been found, but the site has not been fully explored.
The tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, the sister-wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu, is located 110 meters (360 feet) east of the Great Pyramid. It was discovered by accident during the Reisner expedition. The burial was intact, but the sealed coffin was empty.
Four smaller pyramids are located on the southern end of the east side. Three of them still stand nearly to their full height and are called the Queens' Pyramids (G1-a, G1-b, and G1-c). The fourth, smaller pyramid (G1-d), was so damaged that its existence was not known until stones and parts of its capstone were found during excavations in 1991–1993.
Three boat-shaped pits are found east of the pyramid. They are large enough to hold complete boats, but they are shallow, suggesting any structures on top may have been removed or taken apart.
Two more boat pits, which are long and rectangular, were found south of the pyramid. These pits are still covered by heavy stone slabs, some weighing up to 15 tons.
The first pit was discovered in May 1954 by Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el-Mallakh. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 meters (75 feet) and the shortest 10 centimeters (0.33 feet). A boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, figured out how the pieces fit together. It took 14 years to restore the boat, which is now made of cedar wood and measures 43.6 meters (143 feet) long. The boat was originally displayed in the Giza Solar Boat Museum, a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned building near the pyramid. It is now in the Grand Egyptian Museum.
During construction of the museum in the 1980s, a second sealed boat pit was found. It remained unopened until 2011, when excavations began.
A large stone wall, called the Wall of the Crow, surrounds the Giza pyramid complex. Mark Lehner discovered a worker's town outside the wall, known as "The Lost City." Pottery, seal impressions, and soil layers show the town was built and used during the reigns of Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC). In the early 21st century, Lehner and his team found evidence of a port nearby. This suggests the town and its buildings, called "galleries," may have been used by soldiers and sailors rather than pyramid workers. Lehner proposed that workers may have lived near the ramps used to build the pyramids or at nearby quarries.
In the early 1970s, Austrian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. It contained artifacts, including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which Kromer linked to an artisans' settlement. Mudbrick buildings near Khufu's Valley Temple had Khufu's seals and may have been used by a group caring for Khufu's cult after his death. A worker's cemetery, used from Khufu's time until the end of the Fifth Dynasty, was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Hawass in 1990.
Looting
Authors Bob Brier and Hoyt Hobbs say that "all the pyramids were robbed" by the New Kingdom, the time when royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings began to be built. Joyce Tyldesley explains that the Great Pyramid was likely robbed as early as the First Intermediate Period. Evidence shows that the Great Pyramid was "known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom," long before Arab caliph Al-Ma'mun entered the pyramid around 820 AD.
I. E. S. Edwards discusses a description by Strabo, who wrote that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations." Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by tomb robbers after the Old Kingdom ended. It was then sealed and reopened multiple times until a door, mentioned by Strabo, was added. He notes that if this idea is correct, it might mean that people forgot about the door or blocked the entrance again with stones, which explains why Al-Ma'mun could not find the original entrance. Scholars like Gaston Maspero and Flinders Petrie have found evidence of a similar door at the Bent Pyramid of Dashur.
Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and heard a story about vaults under the pyramid where the body of Khufu was kept. Edwards states that the pyramid was "almost certainly opened and its contents plundered long before Herodotus’s time." He suggests it might have been closed again during Egypt’s Twenty-sixth Dynasty, when other monuments were restored. Edwards believes the story Herodotus heard could have developed over nearly two centuries through repeated retelling by guides who led visitors to the pyramid.