The word "Illuminati" (pronounced /ɪˌluːmɪˈnɑːti/) comes from the Latin word "illuminatus," meaning "enlightened." It has been used to describe several groups, both real and imagined. Historically, the term most often refers to the Bavarian Illuminati, a secret group formed on May 1, 1776, in the Electorate of Bavaria. This group aimed to fight against superstition, ideas that kept people from learning, religious influence on public life, and unfair power held by kings and queens. In their rules, they wrote, "Our goal is to stop the plans of those who cause harm and control them without ruling over them."
The Bavarian Illuminati, along with other secret groups like Freemasonry, were banned by Charles Theodore, the ruler of Bavaria, with help from the Catholic Church in 1784, 1785, 1787, and 1790. Later, many conservative and religious people criticized the group, claiming it continued secretly and was linked to the French Revolution. Some famous people, such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Gottfried Herder, were connected to the group, as was the Duke of Gotha and Weimar.
Over time, the word "Illuminati" has been used to describe other groups that claim to be related to the original Bavarian Illuminati, though these connections are not proven. These groups have often been accused of trying to control world events by influencing governments and businesses to gain power and create a "New World Order." Some conspiracy theories suggest the Illuminati work behind the scenes to control important events. These ideas have appeared in many books, movies, TV shows, comics, video games, and music videos.
History
Adam Weishaupt (1748–1830) became a professor of Canon Law and practical philosophy at the University of Ingolstadt in 1773. He was the only professor at the university who was not a member of the clergy, even though the institution was run by Jesuits, a religious order that Pope Clement XIV had dissolved in 1773. Despite this, the Jesuits at Ingolstadt still held significant influence over the university and considered it their own. They often tried to prevent or discredit non-clerical staff, especially when course material included ideas they saw as liberal or Protestant. Weishaupt became strongly opposed to the clergy and decided to spread Enlightenment ideas through a secret group of people who shared his beliefs.
Weishaupt found Freemasonry too expensive and not open to his ideas, so he created his own society. He modeled it after Freemasonry’s system of ranks but designed it to serve his own goals. He first called the group the "Covenant of Perfectibility," but later changed the name because it sounded unusual. On May 1, 1776, Weishaupt and four students formed the group, which they named the Perfectibilists. They used secret names within the society. Weishaupt called himself Spartacus, while law students Massenhausen, Bauhof, Merz, and Sutor used the names Ajax, Agathon, Tiberius, and Erasmus Roterodamus. Weishaupt later removed Sutor from the group for being lazy. In April 1778, the group changed its name to the Illuminatenorden, or Order of Illuminati, after Weishaupt considered the name "Bee Order."
Massenhausen was the most active in growing the society. While studying in Munich, he recruited Xavier von Zwack, a former student of Weishaupt, who was then working for the Bavarian National Lottery. However, Massenhausen’s enthusiasm led him to recruit unsuitable people, and his personal life later caused him to neglect his duties. Weishaupt eventually handed over control of the Munich group to Zwack, who discovered that Massenhausen had misused funds and intercepted letters between Weishaupt and Zwack. In 1778, Massenhausen left Bavaria and stopped participating in the order. At this time, the group had 12 members.
After Massenhausen left, Zwack focused on recruiting more mature and influential people. Weishaupt especially valued Hertel, a childhood friend and a canon at the Munich Frauenkirche. By the end of summer 1778, the order had 27 members in five groups: Munich (Athens), Ingolstadt (Eleusis), Ravensberg (Sparta), Freysingen (Thebes), and Eichstaedt.
During this early period, the order had three levels: Novice, Minerval, and Illuminated Minerval. Only the Minerval level required a complex ceremony, during which members received secret signs and passwords. A system of mutual spying kept Weishaupt informed about his members’ activities, and his favorites joined a ruling council called the Areopagus. Some novices were allowed to recruit others, becoming Insinuants. The order sought Christians of good character, while excluding Jews, pagans, women, monks, and members of other secret societies. Preferred candidates were wealthy, obedient, willing to learn, and aged 18 to 30.
Weishaupt tried to prevent some members from joining Freemasonry but later joined the older group to gain ideas for his own rituals. He was admitted to a Freemason lodge called "Prudence" in February 1777. However, the lodge’s teachings did not provide the advanced knowledge he wanted. In 1778, a priest named Abbé Marotti told Zwack that Freemasonry’s deeper secrets were tied to older religious traditions. Zwack convinced Weishaupt to form a friendly relationship with Freemasonry and establish their own lodge. At this time, adding Freemasonry’s three degrees was considered a secondary goal.
A permit was obtained from the Grand Lodge of Prussia called the Royal York for Friendship, and the new lodge was named Theodore of the Good Council, a name meant to honor Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria. The lodge was founded in Munich on March 21, 1779, and quickly filled with Illuminati members. The first leader, Radl, returned to Baden, and by July 1779, Weishaupt’s group controlled the lodge.
Next, the order sought independence from its Grand Lodge. By forming ties with the Union lodge in Frankfurt, affiliated with the Premier Grand Lodge of England, the lodge Theodore gained recognition and declared its independence. As a new lodge, it could now create its own lodges. Recruiting efforts in Frankfurt also brought Adolph Freiherr Knigge into the Illuminati.
Knigge was recruited in late 1780 at a meeting of the Rite of Strict Observance by Costanzo Marchese di Costanzo, a Bavarian army captain and Freemason. Knigge, still in his 20s, had already reached the highest ranks in his order and had plans to reform it. When Costanzo told him about the Illuminati, Knigge became interested. He and three friends wanted to learn more about the group, and Costanzo showed them materials related to the Minerval grade. The teaching materials for this grade included "liberal" books banned in Bavaria but common in Protestant German states. Knigge’s friends lost interest, but Knigge continued. In November 1780, Weishaupt wrote to Knigge, who was recruited because of his connections within and outside Freemasonry. Knigge was drawn to the Illuminati’s goals of education and protecting people from tyranny. Weishaupt supported Knigge’s interest in alchemy and "higher sciences." Knigge later shared his plans for reforming Freemasonry with Weishaupt.
Weishaupt assigned Knigge the task of recruiting before he could join the order’s higher ranks. Knigge agreed but wanted to choose his own recruiting areas. Many Freemasons were attracted to Knigge’s description of the new order and joined the Minerval grade. At first, Knigge believed in the "Most Serene Superiors" Weishaupt claimed to serve. However, Knigge’s inability to explain the higher grades of the order became a problem. Weishaupt delayed helping him, giving him extra tasks. Using materials from Weishaupt, Knigge wrote pamphlets exposing the Jesuits’ continued influence in Bavaria. Meanwhile, Knigge’s failure to answer questions about the higher grades made his position unstable. He wrote to Weishaupt about this. In January 1781,
Barruel and Robison
Between 1797 and 1798, Augustin Barruel’s Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism and John Robison’s Proofs of a Conspiracy shared the idea that the Illuminati had survived and were part of an international conspiracy. These books claimed the Illuminati were responsible for the French Revolution. Both works were widely read, leading to more copies being printed and similar books being written by others. One example is Proofs of the Real Existence, and Dangerous Tendency, Of Illuminism by Reverend Seth Payson, published in 1802. Some people criticized these ideas, such as Jean-Joseph Mounier in his book On the Influence Attributed to Philosophers, Free-Masons, and to the Illuminati on the Revolution of France.
Barruel, a Jesuit who had been exiled from France, used some ideas from Robison to argue that Jews, Freemasons, and the Illuminati wanted to destroy all monarchies and the Vatican to create a global republic. However, Barruel did not accuse all Freemasons and considered himself a Freemason. He also claimed that the Knights Templar had secretly survived and were working within Freemasonry to harm Christianity.
Barruel’s early work portrayed Jews as part of a global conspiracy that shaped world events. This was unusual because, at the time, most people believed Jews lacked the power to influence history in such a way. Later, Barruel avoided republishing his book because he feared it might lead to violence against Jews.
Books by Robison and Barruel reached the United States and New England. Reverend Jedidiah Morse, a Congregational minister and geographer, gave sermons warning about the Illuminati. One of the first American accounts of the Illuminati was Morse’s Fast Day sermon on May 9, 1798. Morse learned about Robison’s book through a letter from Reverend John Erskine in Edinburgh and read it after copies arrived in the United States in March 1798. Other writers, like Timothy Dwight, also criticized the Illuminati.
Sermons about the Illuminati were followed by newspaper reports, which became part of political debates before the 1800 U.S. presidential election. The fear of the Illuminati also influenced the rise of gothic literature in the United States. At least two books from this time, Ormond; or, The Secret Witness (1799) and Julia, and the Illuminated Baron (1800), mention the crisis. Some scholars believe the fear of the Illuminati was connected to worries about immigration from the Caribbean and possible slave rebellions. Fear of the Illuminati decreased in the early 1800s but returned later in the 1820s and 1830s during the Anti-Masonic movement.
Modern Illuminati
Some groups today say they are connected to the original Bavarian Illuminati and use the name "Illuminati" in their organizations. Some call themselves "The Illuminati Order," while others, like Ordo Templi Orientis, include titles such as "Epopt" or "Perfect Pontiff of the Illuminati" in their group's structure. However, there is no proof these modern groups are truly linked to the historic Illuminati. These groups have not gained major political power or influence. Instead, many openly promote unproven connections to the Bavarian Illuminati to attract members.
Some modern researchers say these groups do not have a direct historical connection to the original Illuminati but sometimes use parts of its known structure and symbols in their own organizations.
Legacy
The original Illuminati was crushed in Bavaria. Their later activities and plans, as described by Barruel and Robison, were made up by the authors. Despite this, many modern conspiracy theories say that important events are being controlled and influenced by a secret group that calls itself the Illuminati. Some of the historical events that conspiracy theorists incorrectly claim were planned by the Illuminati include the French Revolution, the 1800 United States presidential election, and the assassination of John F. Kennedy.