Mithraism, also called the Mithraic mysteries or the Cult of Mithras, was a secret religious group in ancient Rome that worshipped the god Mithras. While it was inspired by the Zoroastrian belief in the divinity Mithra, the Roman version of Mithras had unique symbols and practices. It is unclear how much the Roman and Persian traditions were connected. The religion was widely followed by soldiers in the Roman army from the 1st to the 4th century AD.

People who followed Mithraism had a special system with seven levels of membership and shared meals during rituals. Members were called syndexioi, meaning "those united by a handshake." They gathered in underground temples called mithraea, which were often shaped like caves. These temples are found in many places today. The center of the religion was in Rome, and it was popular across much of the western Roman Empire, including areas in Africa, eastern Europe, Britain, and parts of the east like Syria.

Mithraism was considered a competitor to early Christianity. In the 4th century, Christians persecuted Mithraists, and the religion was later banned and disappeared from the Roman Empire by the end of the century.

Archaeologists have found many clues about Mithraism, such as temples, carvings, and writings. Famous images show Mithras being born from a rock, killing a bull, and sharing food with the Sun god, Sol. About 420 sites have uncovered materials linked to the cult. These include around 1,000 inscriptions, 700 carvings of the bull-killing scene, and 400 other monuments. It is estimated that Rome alone had at least 680 mithraea. No written records of the religion’s beliefs remain, so most information comes from inscriptions and brief mentions in ancient Greek and Latin texts. Scientists still debate the meaning of many physical discoveries.

Name

The word "Mithraism" is a term used today. People who lived during the Roman times called it by names like "Mithraic mysteries," "mysteries of Mithras," or "mysteries of the Persians." Some modern sources use the terms "Roman Mithraism" or "Western Mithraism" to show the difference between the Roman version of this belief and the worship of Mithra in Persia.

Etymology

The name Mithras (Latin) is similar to the Greek name Μίθρας. It comes from the name Mithra, a god who was worshipped before Zoroastrianism and later became part of Zoroastrian beliefs. Scholars, like Franz Cumont, have studied this connection for many years. An early example of the Greek name Mithras appears in a book written by Xenophon in the 4th century BCE called Cyropaedia, which tells the story of the Persian king Cyrus the Great.

The way a word is written in Latin or Greek can change based on grammar rules called inflection. Archaeological findings show that Latin-speaking worshippers often wrote the name of the god as "Mithras." In a Greek text by Porphyry called De Abstinentia, there is a mention of old writings about Mithraic mysteries by Euboulus and Pallas. These writings suggest that the name "Mithra" was treated as a word that did not change form in Greek.

Other names related to Mithras include:

• In Vedic Sanskrit, the name Mitra means "friend" or "friendship." This name was used for a god praised in the Rigveda. However, in Sanskrit, the sun god is usually called "Surya" or "Aditya."

• In an ancient peace treaty between the Hittites and the kingdom of Mitanni, written around 1400 BCE, the name mi-it-ra- appears. This treaty was signed by the Hittite king Subbiluliuma and the Mitanni king Mativaza. This is the earliest known evidence of the name Mithras in Asia Minor.

The names Mithra in Iranian languages and Mitra in Sanskrit are believed to come from the Indo-Iranian word mitrás, which means "contract" or "agreement."

Modern historians have different ideas about whether these names refer to the same god. John R. Hinnells believes that Mitra, Mithra, and Mithras describe the same god worshipped in different religions. However, David Ulansey thinks the god associated with the image of Mithras slaying a bull was a new god who began being worshipped around the 1st century BCE, and the name Mithras was later used for him.

Mary Boyce, a scholar who studies ancient Iranian religions, notes that even though Roman Mithraism had less connection to ancient Iranian beliefs than some people once thought, the use of the name Mithras still shows that these connections were important.

Iconography

Much about the religion of Mithras is known only from carvings and statues. Many people have tried to explain what these images mean.

Mithras worship in the Roman Empire often showed the god killing a bull. Other images of Mithras include him eating with the sun god, Sol, and scenes of Mithras being born from a rock. However, the image of Mithras killing a bull (called the tauroctony) is always placed in the center of the artwork. Few written records explain the meaning behind these images.

The practice of showing Mithras killing a bull was unique to Roman Mithraism. According to David Ulansey, this is a major difference between the Roman and Iranian traditions: "There is no evidence that the Iranian god Mithra ever had anything to do with killing a bull."

In every Mithraic temple, the central image was Mithras killing a sacred bull. This image could be a relief or a sculpture, and other details might be added or left out. Mithras is shown wearing clothing from Anatolia and a Phrygian cap, kneeling on the exhausted bull, holding its nostrils with his left hand, and stabbing it with his right. He looks toward Sol, who is nearby. A dog and a snake reach toward the blood, while a scorpion grabs the bull's genitals. A raven is near the bull, and wheat stalks may appear from the bull's tail or wound. The bull is often white. Mithras sits on the bull in a strange way, with his right leg controlling the bull's hoof and his left leg resting on the bull's back or side. Two torchbearers stand on either side of the scene: Cautes holds his torch upward, and Cautopates holds his torch downward. Sometimes they carry shepherds' staffs instead of torches.

The event happens inside a cave, where Mithras has brought the bull after hunting and riding it. Sometimes, a circle around the cave shows the twelve signs of the zodiac. Outside the cave, Sol appears at the top left, often with a flaming crown and driving a four-horse chariot. A ray of light sometimes touches Mithras. At the top right is Luna, the moon goddess, who may be shown driving a two-horse chariot.

In some artworks, the tauroctony is surrounded by smaller scenes showing other events in Mithras's story, such as his birth from a rock, the water miracle, and his meal with Sol. In some cases, like the stucco image at the Santa Prisca Mithraeum in Rome, Mithras is shown without clothing. Some reliefs could be turned to show a second scene, which might include a feast. Some temples had multiple tauroctonies, and small portable versions were found, likely used for private worship.

The second most important scene in Mithraic art is the banquet, where Mithras and Sol Invictus eat on the hide of the slain bull. On the Fiano Romano relief, one torchbearer holds a caduceus (a symbol of Mercury), and flames appear at the base of an altar. Robert Turcan suggests that the flames represent the sending of human souls, linked to Mithraic beliefs. Turcan also connects this to the tauroctony, where blood from the bull soaks the ground, and the flames are created by the caduceus.

Mithras is often shown being born from a rock, already young, holding a dagger and a torch. He is nude, wearing a Phrygian cap. In some versions, he appears as a child or holds a globe or thunderbolt. Flames may come from the rock or his cap. Some statues had bases that could be used as fountains, and others had the face of a water god. Mithras is sometimes shown with weapons like bows and arrows, and animals like dogs, serpents, dolphins, eagles, lions, crocodiles, lobsters, and snails are nearby. Some reliefs include a bearded figure called Oceanus, the god of water, or the gods of the four winds. In these scenes, the four elements (earth, air, fire, water) might be represented. Sometimes, gods like Victoria, Luna, Sol, and Saturn appear, with Saturn giving Mithras a dagger used later in the tauroctony.

In some scenes, Cautes and Cautopates are shown as shepherds. Occasionally, an amphora (a type of jar) appears, and some images show Mithras being born from an egg or a tree. Some interpretations suggest that Mithras's birth was celebrated with torches or candles.

A mysterious figure often found in Mithraic temples is a lion-headed man, sometimes called leontocephaline or leontocephalus. His body is that of a man, wrapped by a serpent (or two serpents, like a caduceus), with the snake's head resting on the lion's head. The lion's mouth is open, and the figure usually has four wings, two keys (or one), and a scepter. Sometimes, the figure stands on a globe with a diagonal cross. On a statue from the Ostia Antica Mithraeum, the wings show symbols of the four seasons, and a thunderbolt is on his chest. At the base of the statue are tools of Vulcan and Mercury, including a caduceus. A rare version of the figure has a human head and a lion's head emerging from its chest.

Although animal-headed figures appear in other ancient religions, no exact match for the lion-headed figure has been found. Based on inscriptions on altars, scholars believe the figure's name might be Arimanius, a Latin version of Ahriman, a demonic figure in Zoroastrian beliefs. Arimanius is mentioned in some Mithraic inscriptions. Some scholars think the figure represents Aion, Zurvan, Cronus, or Chronos, while others believe it is a version of Ahriman or Aryaman, a more peaceful figure in Vedic traditions. While the identity of the lion-headed figure is debated, most scholars agree it is linked to time and the changing seasons.

Rituals and worship

According to M.J. Vermaseren and C.C. van Essen, the Mithraic New Year and the birthday of Mithras were on 25 December. Beck disagreed strongly. Clauss states: "The Mithraic Mysteries had no public ceremonies of its own. The festival of Natalis Invicti, held on 25 December, was a general festival of the Sun, and by no means specific to the Mysteries of Mithras."

Mithraic initiates were required to swear an oath of secrecy and dedication.

Mithras was thought to be a "warrior hero" similar to Greek heroes.

Apparently, some grade rituals involved the recital of a catechism, wherein the initiate was asked a series of questions pertaining to the initiation symbolism and had to reply with specific answers. An example of such a catechism, apparently pertaining to the Leo grade, was discovered in a fragmentary Egyptian papyrus (Papyrus Berolinensis 21196), and reads:

Almost no Mithraic scripture or first-hand account of its rituals survives; with the exception of the aforementioned oath and catechism, and the document known as the Mithras Liturgy, from 4th century Egypt, whose status as a Mithraist text has been questioned by scholars including Franz Cumont. The walls of mithraea were commonly whitewashed, and where this survives, it tends to carry extensive repositories of graffiti; and these, together with inscriptions on Mithraic monuments, form the main source for Mithraic texts.

The archaeology of numerous mithraea indicates that most rituals were associated with feasting—as eating utensils and food residues are often found. These tend to include both animal bones and also very large quantities of fruit residues. The presence of large numbers of cherry-stones in particular would tend to confirm mid-summer (late June, early July) as a season especially associated with Mithraic festivities. The Virunum album, in the form of an inscribed bronze plaque, records a Mithraic festival of commemoration as taking place on 26 June 184. Beck argues that religious celebrations on this date are indicative of special significance being given to the summer solstice; but this time of the year coincides with ancient recognition of the solar maximum at midsummer, when iconographically identical holidays such as Fors Fortuna (ancient Rome), Saint John's Eve, and Jāņi (Lithuania) are also observed.

For their feasts, Mithraic initiates reclined on stone benches arranged along the longer sides of the mithraeum—typically there might be room for 15 to 30 diners, but very rarely many more than 40 men. Counterpart dining rooms, or triclinia, were to be found above ground in the precincts of almost any temple or religious sanctuary in the Roman empire, and such rooms were commonly used for their regular feasts by Roman "clubs," or collegia. Mithraic feasts probably performed a very similar function for Mithraists as the collegia did for those entitled to join them; indeed, since qualification for Roman collegia tended to be restricted to particular families, localities or traditional trades, Mithraism may have functioned in part as providing clubs for the unclubbed. The size of the mithraeum is not necessarily an indication of the size of the congregation.

Each mithraeum had several altars at the further end, underneath the representation of the tauroctony, and also commonly contained considerable numbers of subsidiary altars, both in the main mithraeum chamber and in the ante-chamber or narthex. These altars, which are of the standard Roman pattern, each carry a named dedicatory inscription from a particular initiate, who dedicated the altar to Mithras "in fulfillment of his vow," in gratitude for favours received.

Burned residues of animal entrails are commonly found on the main altars, indicating regular sacrificial use, though mithraea do not commonly appear to have been provided with facilities for ritual slaughter of sacrificial animals (a highly specialised function in Roman religion), and it may be presumed that a mithraeum would have made arrangements for this service to be provided for them in co-operation with the professional victimarius of the civic cult. Prayers were addressed to the Sun three times a day, and Sunday was especially sacred.

It is doubtful whether Mithraism had a monolithic and internally consistent doctrine. It may have varied from location to location. The iconography is relatively coherent. It had no predominant sanctuary or cultic centre; and, although each mithraeum had its own officers and functionaries, there was no central supervisory authority. In some mithraea, such as that at Dura Europos, wall paintings depict prophets carrying scrolls, but no named Mithraic sages are known, nor does any reference give the title of any Mithraic scripture or teaching. It is known that initiates could transfer with their grades from one Mithraeum to another.

Temples of Mithras are sunk below ground, windowless, and very distinctive. In cities, the basement of an apartment block might be converted; elsewhere they might be excavated and vaulted over, or converted from a natural cave. Mithraic temples are common in the empire; although unevenly distributed, with considerable numbers found in Rome, Ostia, Numidia, Dalmatia, Britain and along the Rhine/Danube frontier, while being somewhat less common in Greece, Egypt, and Syria. According to Walter Burkert, the secret character of Mithraic rituals meant that Mithraism could only be practiced within a Mithraeum. Some new finds at Tienen show evidence of large-scale feasting and suggest that the mystery religion may not have been as secretive as was generally believed.

For the most part, mithraea tend to be small, externally undistinguished, and cheaply constructed; the cult generally preferring to create a new centre rather than expand an existing one. The mithraeum represented the cave to which Mithras carried

History and development

Archaeologist Maarten Vermaseren found evidence from Commagene in the 1st century BCE that shows people respected Mithras, but there is no mention of secret religious practices called "the mysteries." At Mount Nemrut, King Antiochus I (69–34 BCE) built large statues. In one, Mithras is shown without a beard, wearing a Phrygian cap or a similar headpiece, dressed in Iranian clothing, and seated on a throne with other gods and the king. The back of the throne has a Greek inscription that includes the name Apollo-Mithras-Helios. Vermaseren also found evidence of a Mithras cult in Fayum in the 3rd century BCE. R.D. Barnett said a royal seal from King Saussatar of the Mitanni around 1450 BCE might show Mithras killing a bull.

Scholars have debated when and how the Mithraic Mysteries began. Clauss said these mysteries started in the 1st century CE. Ulansey believed they appeared in the middle of the 1st century BCE. Plutarch wrote that pirates in Cilicia practiced secret Mithras rites in 67 BCE. C.M. Daniels said it is unclear if these events relate to the origins of the mysteries. Underground temples called mithraea first appeared in the late 1st century CE.

Inscriptions and monuments related to Mithraic Mysteries are recorded in a two-volume work by Maarten J. Vermaseren called Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae (CIMRM). The earliest known image of Mithras killing a bull is CIMRM 593, found in Rome. It was dedicated by a man named Alcimus, who worked for T. Claudius Livianus. Vermaseren and Gordon think Livianus might have been a commander of the Praetorian Guard in 101 CE, suggesting the image dates to 98–99 CE.

Five small terracotta plaques showing a figure with a knife over a bull were found near Kerch in Crimea. Some experts date them to the second half of the 1st century BCE, while others say between 50 BCE and 50 CE. These may be the earliest images of Mithras killing a bull, but they differ from standard depictions. One plaque was found in a woman’s tomb, which makes some experts question if they are connected to the Mithraic Mysteries.

An altar in Rome, near SS. Pietro e Marcellino, has a bilingual inscription by T. Flavius Hyginus, likely between 80 and 100 CE. It honors Sol Invictus Mithras. CIMRM 2268, a broken altar from Novae/Steklen in Moesia Inferior (dated 100 CE), shows two figures named Cautes and Cautopates.

Other early evidence includes a Greek inscription from Venosia by Sagaris, dated 100–150 CE; a cippus in Sidon dedicated by Theodotus, a priest of Mithras, to Asclepius (140–141 CE); and a military inscription by C. Sacidius Barbarus, a centurion of XV Apollinaris, from Carnuntum on the Danube (before 114 CE).

C.M. Daniels said the Carnuntum inscription is the earliest Mithraic dedication in the Danube region, one of the two places where Mithraism first spread. The earliest mithraeum outside Rome dates to 148 CE. The Mithraeum at Caesarea Maritima is the only one in Palestine, and its date is estimated.

In 2010, excavations at Inveresk, Scotland, found two well-preserved altars to Mithras dated to 140 CE. These are believed to be the northernmost Mithraic temple in the Roman Empire.

Roger Beck listed early locations of the Mithraic cult (around 80–120 CE) based on pottery findings, including sites in Germany, France, and the Danube region.

The earliest literary references to Mithras are from the 1st century CE. Statius, a Latin poet, wrote about Mithras in The Thebaid (c. 80 CE), describing him in a cave wrestling with a horned creature. Plutarch (c. 100 CE) mentioned pirates in Cilicia practicing secret Mithras rites.

Dio Cassius (2nd–3rd century CE) wrote that during Tiridates I of Armenia’s visit to Rome in 66 CE, he told Emperor Nero he revered him "as Mithras." Porphyry (3rd–4th century CE) described Mithras’s origins in De antro nympharum, saying Zoroaster consecrated a natural cave to Mithras. However, scholars like Robert Turcan and Merkelbach & Beck questioned whether Porphyry’s account accurately reflected Mithraic beliefs.

Interpretations of the bull-slaying scene

According to Cumont, the image of Mithras killing a bull, known as the tauroctony, was a representation from ancient Greek and Roman culture of an event described in a 9th-century Zoroastrian text called the Bundahishn. In this text, the evil spirit Ahriman (not Mithras) is said to have killed a primordial creature named Gavaevodata, which is described as a cow. Cumont believed that a version of the story might have existed in which Mithras, not Ahriman, killed the bull. However, Hinnells stated that no such version is known, and that this idea is only a guess: "No known Iranian text, whether Zoroastrian or not, describes Mithras killing a bull."

David Ulansey found evidence in the Mithraeum, which were cave-like temples dedicated to Mithras. He noted that a writer named Porphyry, who lived in the 3rd century CE, wrote that the Mithraeum depicted "an image of the world" and that the prophet Zoroaster consecrated a cave that resembled the world created by Mithras. In the Mithraeum at Caesarea Maritima, traces of blue paint on the ceiling suggest that the ceiling may have been painted to look like the sky and stars.

Beck has described possible celestial connections in the tauroctony. He lists several theories about what the figure of Mithras might represent in the image.

Ulansey suggested that Mithras may have been inspired by the constellation Perseus, which appears above Taurus in the night sky. He pointed out similarities between Perseus and Mithras, such as both being young heroes, carrying a dagger, and wearing a Phrygian cap. He also noted that both figures are linked to caves and Persia, as well as the image of Perseus killing a monster, which is similar to the tauroctony. Michael Speidel connected Mithras to the constellation Orion because of its position near Taurus and the way Mithras is often depicted with wide shoulders, a wide bottom, and a narrow waist with a belt, resembling Orion’s shape.

In contrast, Jelbert proposed that Mithras might represent the Milky Way. He argued that the path of Mithras in the tauroctony resembles the Milky Way, which connects the constellations Taurus and Scorpius. Jelbert suggested that this idea fits with Mithras being a god of light and creation, as the Milky Way is bright and associated with the soul’s journey through the constellations Taurus-Gemini and Scorpius-Sagittarius, believed to be places where souls enter and leave the world.

Beck criticized Ulansey and Speidel for focusing too much on literal connections between the tauroctony and constellations. He called their theories misleading and argued that treating the tauroctony as a star map has two problems: it is hard to match Mithras to a specific constellation, and the image may have multiple meanings rather than one. Instead, Beck believed that Mithras represents the "Unconquered Sun," a symbol of light moving through the stars. However, Meyer argued that a religious text called the Mithras Liturgy supports Ulansey’s idea that Mithras was connected to the movement of the stars.

Peter Chrisp suggested that the killing of the bull in the tauroctony was a sacred act, believed to create and maintain the life force of the universe.

Comparable belief systems

The Mithraic cult was part of the way ancient Roman religion combined different beliefs. Many Mithraic temples, called Mithraea, had statues of gods from other religions. It was also common to find writings about Mithras in other religious places, especially those dedicated to Jupiter Dolichenus. Mithraism was not a replacement for other Roman religions, but one of many religious practices. Many people who joined Mithraism also took part in public religious activities and other secret religious groups.

Early Christian writers noticed that some Mithraic rituals were similar to Christian ones, but they strongly criticized Mithraism. They believed these rituals were evil copies of Christian practices. For example, Tertullian wrote that Mithraic initiates were given a ritual bath before their ceremony and received a mark on their forehead, possibly the letter "M" for Mithras. He called these practices a false imitation of Christian baptism and anointing. Justin Martyr compared Mithraic rituals with the Christian Eucharist.

In 1882, Ernest Renan proposed that, under different conditions, Mithraism might have become as widespread as modern Christianity. He wrote, "If Christianity had been stopped by a serious illness, the world would have been Mithraic." This idea has been challenged. Leonard Boyle argued in 1987 that Mithraism was not a major threat to Christianity, noting that only about fifty Mithraic temples were known in Rome. J.A. Ezquerra stated that since Mithraism and Christianity had different goals, Mithraism never seriously threatened to replace Christianity. Mithraism had support from Roman aristocrats during a time when traditional values faced challenges from rising Christianity.

Mary Boyce said Mithraism was a strong competitor for Christianity in the West, though she doubted its influence in the East. F. Coarelli listed forty known or possible Mithraic temples and estimated that Rome had "not less than 680–690" Mithraea. L.M. Hopfe noted that more than 400 Mithraic sites have been found across the Roman Empire, from Dura-Europos in the east to England in the west. He also suggested Mithraism might have been a rival to Christianity. David Ulansey thought Renan’s claim was exaggerated but believed Mithraism was one of Christianity’s major competitors in the Roman Empire.