Mohenjo-daro is an archaeological site located in the Larkana District of Sindh, Pakistan. It was built around 2500 BCE and was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. This city was among the earliest major cities in the world and existed around the same time as ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoa, and Norte Chico.
Mohenjo-daro had an estimated population of at least 40,000 people and thrived for many years. However, it was abandoned around 1700 BCE, along with other large cities of the Indus Valley Civilization.
The site was rediscovered in the 1920s. Important excavations have been conducted there, and it was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. This was the first site in South Asia to receive this designation. Today, the site is in danger because of erosion and poor restoration efforts.
Etymology
The city's original name is not known. Iravatham Mahadevan, after studying a seal from Mohenjo-daro, suggests that the city's ancient name might have been Kukkuṭārma, which means "the city of the cockerel." Cock-fighting may have been important in religious or ceremonial practices in the city. Mohenjo-daro may also have been a place where domesticated chickens spread to regions such as Africa, Western Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The modern name "Mohenjo-daro" is thought to mean "Mound of the Dead" in the Sindhi language.
Location
Mohenjo-daro is located on the west side of the lower Indus River in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan. It is found on an ancient ridge in the flood plain of the Indus River, about 28 kilometers (17 miles) from the town of Larkana.
Historical context
Mohenjo-daro was built around 2500 BC. It was part of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also called the Harappan Civilization, which began around 3000 BC and evolved from earlier cultures. At its peak, this civilization covered much of modern Pakistan and northern India, reaching as far west as the Iranian border, south to the Indian state of Gujarat, and north to an area in Bactria. Major cities included Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira, and Rakhigarhi. Mohenjo-daro was one of the most advanced cities of its time, featuring advanced building techniques and well-planned urban design. Around 1700 BC, the Indus Civilization suddenly declined, and Mohenjo-daro was abandoned.
Rediscovery and excavation
The ruins of the city were not recorded for about 3,700 years until R. D. Banerji, an officer from the Archaeological Survey of India, visited the site in 1919–1920. He identified what he believed to be a Buddhist stupa (150–500 CE) already known to exist there and found a flint scraper, which made him believe the site was very old. This discovery led to major excavations of Mohenjo-daro, directed by Kashinath Dikshit in 1924–1925 and John Marshall in 1925–1926. In the 1930s, large excavations were carried out under Marshall, D. K. Dikshitar, and Ernest Mackay. Additional excavations happened in 1945, led by Mortimer Wheeler and his assistant, Ahmad Dani, along with F. A. Khan. The last major excavations took place in 1964 and 1965, led by George Dales. After 1965, excavations were stopped because weathering damaged the exposed structures. Since then, only salvage excavations, surface surveys, and conservation projects have been allowed at the site. In the 1980s, German and Italian teams led by Michael Jansen and Maurizio Tosi used less harmful archaeological methods, such as architectural documentation, surface surveys, and localized probing, to learn more about Mohenjo-daro. In 2015, a dry core drilling by Pakistan's National Fund for Mohenjo-daro showed the site is larger than the area already uncovered.
Architecture and urban infrastructure
Mohenjo-daro had a planned layout with buildings arranged in straight lines on a grid pattern. Most buildings were made of fired and mortared brick, while some used sun-dried mud bricks and wood. The covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated to be 300 hectares. The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History suggests that the city may have had a peak population of about 40,000 people.
The large size of the city and its public buildings and facilities show that the people had a high level of organization. The city was divided into two parts: the Citadel and the Lower City. The Citadel was a mud-brick mound about 12 meters high and included public baths, a large house that may have held 5,000 people, and two large assembly halls. The city had a central marketplace with a large well. Smaller wells provided water to individual homes or groups of homes. Waste water was directed into covered drains along the main streets. Some homes, likely belonging to wealthier people, had rooms for bathing, and one building had an underground furnace, possibly used for heated baths. Most homes had inner courtyards with doors opening to side-lanes. Some buildings had two stories.
In 1950, Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified a large building as a "Great Granary," suggesting it was used to store grain. However, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer noted that no grain was found there, leading him to suggest it might instead be called a "Great Hall" with an unknown purpose.
Near the "Great Granary" was a large public bath, sometimes called the Great Bath. It was accessed through a colonnaded courtyard and had a brick pool lined with bitumen to keep it waterproof. The pool measured 12 meters long, 7 meters wide, and 2.4 meters deep. It may have been used for religious rituals.
Other large buildings included a "Pillared Hall," possibly an assembly hall, and the "College Hall," a complex of 78 rooms thought to have been a residence for priests.
Archaeologists have found the remains of mud-brick walls that once surrounded Mohenjo-daro. The city was also protected by guard towers to the west and defensive structures to the south. Scholars think Mohenjo-daro was an administrative center, based on its fortifications and similarities to other Indus Valley cities like Harappa. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had similar layouts but were less heavily fortified than other Indus Valley sites. The identical city layouts of all Indus Valley sites suggest some level of political or administrative coordination, though the exact role of an administrative center is unclear.
Mohenjo-daro was built quickly, with water supply systems and wells among the first planned structures. Over 700 wells have been found there, along with drainage and bathing systems. This number is much higher than in other ancient civilizations, such as Egypt or Mesopotamia, with one well for every three homes. The many wells suggest the city relied on annual rainfall and the nearby Indus River for water. The circular brick well design used at Mohenjo-daro and other Harappan sites is believed to have been invented by the Indus civilization, as no similar designs are found in Mesopotamia or Egypt. Waste water was disposed of through a centralized drainage system running alongside the streets, likely directing waste toward the Indus River.
The city had large platforms that may have been used to protect against flooding. Some archaeologists think the city may have been flooded and rebuilt multiple times. Others believe the site was abandoned after a final flood covered the city in mud. Gregory Possehl suggested that repeated small floods, combined with overuse of the land for farming and brick-making, may have led to the city's decline, rather than a single major flood.
Notable artefacts
Many objects found during excavations at Mohenjo-daro include seated and standing figures, copper and stone tools, carved seals, balance-scales and weights, gold and jasper jewelry, and children's toys. Many bronze and copper items, such as figurines and bowls, were found at the site. These items show that the people of Mohenjo-daro knew how to use the lost wax technique. The furnaces found at the site were likely used for working with copper and melting metals, not for smelting. There appears to be a section of the city dedicated to making items from shells, located in the northeastern part of the site. Some of the most important copper items found include copper tablets with examples of the Indus script and images. Although the script has not been translated, some images on the tablets match another tablet, and all three have the same writing on the back, which shows a picture of a mountain goat.
Pottery and terracotta pieces were found at the site. Many of the pots had ash inside, leading archaeologists to believe they were used to hold ashes or to heat homes. These items, called heaters or braziers, could also be used for cooking or straining. Some people think they were only used for heating.
Artifacts from Mohenjo-daro were first kept in the Lahore Museum, but later moved to the ASI headquarters in New Delhi. A new museum was planned for the British Raj’s capital, and some items were displayed there. As India gained independence, the Partition of India was not expected at first. Pakistani officials asked for the return of Harappan artifacts found on their territory, but Indian officials refused. Eventually, an agreement was made to split the finds equally between the two countries. In some cases, items like necklaces were divided by separating beads into two piles. Pakistan received the "Priest-King" statue, while India kept the smaller "Dancing Girl" statue and the Pashupati seal.
Most items from Mohenjo-daro kept by India are now in the National Museum of India in New Delhi. Items returned to Pakistan are in the National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi, and some are also in the museum at Mohenjo-daro itself. In 1939, a small group of artifacts from the site was sent to the British Museum by the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.
In 1931, John Marshall discovered an idol that resembles the Mother Goddess from early Near East civilizations. Female figurines were found during Marshall’s excavations, but their exact locations at the site are unclear. One of these figurines is 18.7 cm tall and is displayed at the National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi. Marshall noted that the exaggerated female features on the figurines suggest they were offerings to the goddess, not just representations of her. Because of their unique hairstyles, body shapes, and jewelry, some scholars believe these figures might represent ordinary women who used them in rituals or healing ceremonies.
A bronze statue called the "Dancing Girl," about 10.5 cm tall and 4,000 years old, was found in the 'HR area' of Mohenjo-daro in 1926. It is now in the National Museum in New Delhi. In 1973, archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler called it his favorite statuette, describing it as a confident young girl. John Marshall described the figure as a young girl with one hand on her hip and legs slightly forward, as if dancing. Gregory Possehl noted that while the statue might not be of a dancer, it shows skill and confidence. This discovery revealed that the civilization knew advanced metalworking techniques and that dance was part of their culture.
In 1927, a seated male soapstone figure was found in a building with special brickwork and a wall niche. Though there is no proof that priests or kings ruled Mohenjo-daro, archaeologists called this figure a "Priest-King." The statue is 17.5 cm tall and shows a bearded man with pierced ears and a headband. He wears an armband and a cloak with decorated patterns. His eyes may have originally been inlaid with materials.
A seal found at the site shows a seated, cross-legged figure surrounded by animals. Some scholars think the figure is a yogi, while others believe it is a three-headed "proto-Shiva" known as the "Lord of Animals." Sir Mortimer Wheeler was fascinated by this artifact, which he believed was at least 4,500 years old. The seal has a necklace with an S-shaped clasp made of bronze beads. Each strand has about 220 to 230 beads, totaling around 1,600 beads. The necklace weighs about 250 grams and is currently in a private collection in India.
The Indus Valley civilization used ivory rulers to measure length around 1500 BC. The Mohenjo-daro ruler is divided into units of 34 millimeters, with precise decimal subdivisions. A ruler found at Lothal, dating to 2400 BCE, is calibrated to about 1.6 millimeters. The decimal system on these rulers predates the modern metric system by over 3,000 years. The basic unit of measurement was called the angula (finger), about 17 millimeters. A shell piece found during Mackay’s excavations has lines spaced 6.7 millimeters apart. Ancient bricks in the region match these measurements.
Conservation and current state
In 1980, an agreement to fund the restoration of Mohenjo-daro was made through the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Paris on May 27. Other countries also contributed money to the project.
Preservation work at Mohenjo-daro stopped in December 1996 when funding from the Pakistani government and international groups ended. Conservation efforts began again in April 1997, using money provided by UNESCO. A 20-year plan gave $10 million to protect the site and its structures from flooding. In 2011, responsibility for preserving the site was given to the government of Sindh.
Today, the site is in danger because of salt in the groundwater and poor restoration work. Many walls have already fallen, and others are breaking down from the bottom up. In 2012, Pakistani archaeologists warned that, without better protection, the site might be lost by 2030.
In January 2014, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari of the Pakistan People's Party chose Mohenjo-daro as the location for the Sindh Festival’s opening ceremony. This could have caused damage through activities like digging and drilling. Farzand Masih, head of the Department of Archaeology at Punjab University, said such actions are illegal under the Antiquity Act, stating, “You cannot even hammer a nail at an archaeological site.” A legal case was filed in the Sindh High Court to stop the event. Despite protests from historians and educators, the festival was held at the site.
Climate
Mohenjo-daro has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) with very hot summers and cool winters. The highest temperature ever recorded there was 53.5 °C (128.3 °F) in May 2010, and the lowest temperature was −5.4 °C (22.3 °F) in January 2006. Rainfall is rare, and most of it happens during the monsoon season from July to September. The average yearly rainfall is 100.1 mm, with the most rainfall recorded in 2022 at 1023.8 mm and the least in 1987 at 10 mm.