Mount Erebus is the southernmost active volcano on Earth. It is located on Ross Island in the Ross Dependency in Antarctica. The volcano's highest point is 3,792 meters (12,441 feet) above sea level. It is the second most noticeable mountain in Antarctica, after Mount Vinson, and the second-highest volcano in Antarctica, after Mount Sidley, which is not active. Mount Erebus is the highest point on Ross Island, which also has three inactive volcanoes: Mount Terror, Mount Bird, and Mount Terra Nova. Because of this, Ross Island is the sixth-highest island on Earth based on its highest point.

The mountain was named in 1841 by Captain James Clark Ross after his ship, HMS Erebus. Mount Erebus has been active for about 1.3 million years. It has a lava lake inside its main crater that has been present since at least the early 1970s. On November 28, 1979, Air New Zealand Flight 901 crashed on Mount Erebus, killing all 257 people on board.

Geology and volcanology

Mount Erebus is the world's southernmost active volcano. It is the main area of activity for the Erebus hotspot. The top of the volcano has a continuously moving lava lake made of phonolite, one of five long-lasting lava lakes on Earth. Typical eruptions include Strombolian activity from the lava lake or from smaller vents inside the volcano's inner crater. Scientists find Mount Erebus especially interesting because its steady, low-level eruptions allow long-term study of Strombolian systems very close to the active vents, a feature shared by only a few volcanoes, such as Stromboli in Italy. Research is also easier because the volcano is near McMurdo Station (U.S.) and Scott Base (New Zealand), both located about 35 kilometers away on the same island.

Mount Erebus is classified as a polygenetic stratovolcano. The lower half of the volcano is shaped like a shield, while the upper half is a steep-sided cone. The lava currently erupting from Erebus is made of anorthoclase-porphyritic tephritic phonolite and phonolite, which cover much of the volcano's surface. Older eruptions produced less changed and less thick basanite lava, forming the wide, flat shield base of the volcano. Slightly younger basanite and phonotephrite lava can be found on Fang Ridge, an eroded remnant of an earlier version of the volcano, and on other parts of its sides. Mount Erebus is the only active volcano in the world that currently erupts phonolite.

After basanite lava, more viscous phonotephrite and trachyte lava flows occurred. The upper slopes of Mount Erebus are covered by steep tephritic phonolite lava flows with large ridges along their edges. A noticeable change in slope at about 3,200 meters above sea level marks the top of a caldera, which was formed by a large explosive eruption 18,000 ± 7,000 years ago. This caldera is filled with small amounts of tephritic phonolite and phonolite lava. In the center of the caldera is a small, steep cone made mostly of broken lava pieces and a large pile of anorthoclase crystals known as Erebus crystals. The active lava lake in this cone continuously releases gas.

Tiny gold particles have been found up to 1,000 kilometers from Mount Erebus, with sizes up to 60 micrometers. A 1991 study showed that these particles form from gold vapor in the volcano's emissions, which release about 80 grams of gold vapor daily. While this amount is small compared to other volcanoes, it is the first time gold vapor has been observed to condense into solid particles.

During the 2007–08 field season, researchers placed a large number of seismometers around Mount Erebus for more than three months. They used controlled explosions buried along the volcano's sides and perimeter to study energy waves and recorded signals from lava lake eruptions and ice quakes. By analyzing how seismic waves bent and scattered, scientists created images of the volcano's upper layers to understand how magma moves from deep underground to the lava lake. Their findings revealed a complex network of magma channels and storage areas hundreds of meters below the surface, located to the northwest of the lava lake.

Ice fumaroles

Mount Erebus is known for its many ice fumaroles—ice towers that form around gases escaping from cracks in the ground. The ice caves connected to these fumaroles are dark and found in environments with very little organic material. These caves have oxygen-rich water moving through rocks that contain very little oxygen. Life in these caves is limited, mostly consisting of bacteria and fungi. This makes the caves important for studying oligotrophs—organisms that can survive with very few resources.

The caves on Erebus are especially interesting for astrobiology because most surface caves are affected by human activity or by organic material brought in by animals or water. The caves at Erebus are located at high altitudes but are still accessible for research. Some caves can reach temperatures of 25 degrees Celsius (77 degrees Fahrenheit), and in some caves, light from the surface can reach deep inside, supporting ecosystems of moss, algae, small animals, and tiny worms.

These caves are constantly changing, collapsing and rebuilding over many years. The air inside has 80 to 100% humidity, up to 3% carbon dioxide, and some carbon monoxide and hydrogen, but almost no methane or hydrogen sulfide. Many caves are completely dark, so photosynthesis cannot occur. Organic material must come from the atmosphere or from algae growing on the surface during summer, which may eventually enter the caves through melting ice. As a result, most microbes there are chemolithoautotrophic—organisms that get energy from chemical reactions with rocks and do not rely on other life forms. These microbes use carbon dioxide fixation, and some may use carbon monoxide for energy. The main types of microbes found are Chloroflexota and Acidobacteriota. In 2019, the Marsden Fund gave nearly NZ$1 million to the University of Waikato and the University of Canterbury to study the microbes in the geothermal fumaroles.

History

Mount Erebus was discovered on January 27, 1841, by polar explorer Sir James Clark Ross during his Antarctic expedition. He named the mountain and its neighboring peak, Mount Terror, after his ships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror. These ships were later used and lost by Sir John Franklin during his Arctic expedition. Joseph Hooker, a young scientist who later became president of the Royal Society and a friend of Charles Darwin, was on board HMS Erebus during the discovery. In Greek mythology, Erebus is a dark region in Hades, represented as the ancient god of darkness, the son of Chaos.

The mountain was surveyed in December 1912 by a science team from Robert Falcon Scott’s Terra Nova expedition, who also collected geological samples. Two of the camp sites used by the team have been recognized as historic sites or monuments after a proposal by the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and the United States to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.

Mount Erebus’ summit crater rim was first reached by members of Sir Ernest Shackleton’s party, including Professor Edgeworth David, Sir Douglas Mawson, Dr. Alister Mackay, Alex Lagasse, Jameson Adams, Dr. Eric Marshall, and Philip Brocklehurst (who did not reach the summit) on March 10, 1908. This ascent was described in the first chapter of Aurora Australis, the first book written and published in Antarctica. The first solo climb and the first winter ascent of the mountain were completed by British mountaineer Roger Mear on June 7, 1985, during the “In the Footsteps of Scott” expedition. On January 19–20, 1991, Charles J. Blackmer, an ironworker at McMurdo Station and the South Pole, reached the summit alone in about 17 hours, using a snowmobile and walking.

In 1992, the inside of Mount Erebus’ volcano was explored by Dante I, an eight-legged robotic explorer. Dante was designed to collect gas samples from the magma lake inside the crater and measure temperature and radioactivity. It successfully climbed part of the crater before technical issues with its communication cable stopped further progress. Although Dante did not reach the crater’s bottom, the expedition was successful in testing robotic technology and may have been the first robotic mission to Antarctica.

Air New Zealand Flight 901 was a scheduled sightseeing flight from New Zealand to Antarctica, operated with McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 aircraft starting in February 1977. On November 28, 1979, the flight crashed into Mount Erebus, killing all 257 people on board. Photographs taken seconds before the crash showed clear visibility, with no clouds blocking the view. The mountain was illuminated by sunlight from behind the aircraft, creating a lack of shadows that made it hard to see against the overcast sky, a phenomenon called “flat-light.” Investigations found a navigational error in flight documentation by Air New Zealand and a cover-up, leading to lawsuits. Air New Zealand stopped its Antarctic flights after this incident, with its final flight on February 17, 1980. During the Antarctic summer, melting snow on Mount Erebus’ slopes often exposes debris from the crash, visible from the air.

Craters

77°31′43″S 167°09′35″E  /  77.5287°S 167.1598°E  / -77.5287; 167.1598. This area rises to about 3,750 metres (12,300 ft) and forms the main summit crater of Mount Erebus. The Inner Crater, located inside the Main Crater, contains a lava lake made of anorthoclase-phonolite rock.

77°31′37″S 167°09′55″E  /  77.5270°S 167.1652°E  / -77.5270; 167.1652. This area is located inside the floor of the Main Crater at the top of Mount Erebus. The Inner Crater holds an active lava lake made of anorthoclase-phonolite rock. Its name comes from its position within the Main Crater of Mount Erebus.

77°31′47″S 167°08′36″E  /  77.5296°S 167.1433°E  / -77.5296; 167.1433. A nearly circular crater about 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) high is located on the southwest rim of Mount Erebus. It is named based on its position on the side of the main summit cone of Mount Erebus.

77°31′56″S 167°07′09″E  /  77.5323°S 167.1193°E  / -77.5323; 167.1193. A small circular crater at 3,561 metres (11,683 ft) high is found on the western slope of Mount Erebus’s summit. It is named based on its location.

Summit features

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Mount Erebus has several named features on its slopes, including rock formations. Features near the summit of the mountain include:

77°30′13″S 167°07′01″E  /  77.5035°S 167.1169°E  / -77.5035; 167.1169. Tall cliffs about 3,525 metres (11,565 ft) high on the north rim of the summit caldera of Mount Erebus. The name comes from a USCG helicopter (CG 1404) that lost power and crashed near McMurdo Station on January 9, 1971. No one was injured, but the helicopter was abandoned because of its location.

77°31′53″S 167°04′47″E  /  77.5315°S 167.0796°E  / -77.5315; 167.0796. A steep bluff about 3,470 metres (11,380 ft) high on the southwest rim of the summit caldera. Named after a nearby seismic station.

77°31′57″S 167°06′45″E  /  77.5326°S 167.1126°E  / -77.5326; 167.1126. A ridge about 3,540 metres (11,610 ft) high that slopes down the southwest side of the summit crater. Named because the ridge is shaped by a series of ice towers that release steam.

77°31′42″S 167°08′47″E  /  77.5282°S 167.1464°E  / -77.5282; 167.1464. A curved slope about 3,650 metres (11,980 ft) high, just south of Crystal Slope on the west side of the summit cone. This area has a slump that occurred near the crater rim. It was also a former camp site for people climbing the mountain. A small hut is located on the upper part of the slope.

77°31′36″S 167°08′45″E  /  77.5268°S 167.1457°E  / -77.5268; 167.1457. A gully about 3,675 metres (12,057 ft) high on the northwest side of the summit crater. This area was used as an access route for a NASA robot called Dante, which reached the crater rim on January 1, 1993.

77°31′32″S 167°09′01″E  /  77.5256°S 167.1502°E  / -77.5256; 167.1502. A western slope about 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) high between Camp Slope and Robot Gully, leading down from the summit crater. Named because the slope contains a pile of large anorthoclase feldspar crystals.

77°31′16″S 167°08′49″E  /  77.5211°S 167.1469°E  / -77.5211; 167.1469. A large group of jumbled rocks about 3,633 metres (11,919 ft) high, formed by lava flowing on the northwest upper slope of the active cone. This feature is near a camp site used mainly in the 1970s by teams working at the mountain’s summit. Named because many people at the camp experienced nausea from high-elevation mountain sickness.

Northern features

Features on the northern slopes include:

77°26′S 167°00′E / 77.433°S 167.000°E / -77.433; 167.000. A pyramidal peak on the north side of Mount Erebus, between it and Mount Bird. Charted by the British Antarctic Expedition under Scott, 1910–13, and named for Petty Officer George P. Abbott, Royal Navy, a member of the expedition.

77°27′14″S 166°48′57″E / 77.4540°S 166.8158°E / -77.4540; 166.8158. Two rock summits rising to over 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) high on the northwest slope of Mount Erebus. The feature is 1.2 nautical miles (2.2 km; 1.4 mi) west-northwest of Abbott Peak. At the suggestion of P.R. Kyle, named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) (2000) after Sarah Krall, who worked over 10 years providing support to science in Antarctica. She was cook and camp manager at the lower Erebus Hut during the 1992–93 NSF-NASA Dante robot experiment on Mount Erebus. She also managed the food room at McMurdo Station, was the hovercraft pilot, and has also been a helicopter technician.

77°28′41″S 166°53′18″E / 77.4780°S 166.8882°E / -77.4780; 166.8882. A nunatak rising to about 1,700 metres (5,600 ft) high on the northwest slope of Mount Erebus. The feature is 1.2 nautical miles (2.2 km; 1.4 mi) south-southwest of Abbott Peak. Named by New Zealand Geographic Board (NZGB) (2000) after Sergeant L.W. (Wally) Tarr, Royal New Zealand Air Force, aircraft mechanic with the New Zealand contingent of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (CTAE), 1956–58.

77°29′S 167°12′E / 77.483°S 167.200°E / -77.483; 167.200. A conspicuous ridge on the northeast slope of Mount Erebus. It is a much denuded portion of the original caldera rim left by a catastrophic eruption. So named, probably for its curved shape, by Frank Debenham of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910–13, who made a plane table survey in 1912.

77°29′09″S 167°12′13″E / 77.4859°S 167.2036°E / -77.4859; 167.2036. A distinctive toothlike peak, 3,159 metres (10,364 ft) high, which forms the highest point of Fang Ridge. Descriptively named by Frank Debenham of British Antarctic Expedition, 1910–13, who made a plane table survey of the vicinity in 1912.

77°30′24″S 167°22′54″E / 77.5066°S 167.3818°E / -77.5066; 167.3818. A peak rising to about 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) high on the northeast slope of Mount Erebus, 4 nautical miles (7.4 km; 4.6 mi) east-northeast of the Erebus summit. So named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in the millennium year 2000.

77°29′17″S 167°28′39″E / 77.4881°S 167.4774°E / -77.4881; 167.4774. A peak rising to about 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) high on the northeast slope of Mount Erebus, 3.6 nautical miles (6.7 km; 4.1 mi) east of the summit of Fang Ridge. Named by the New Zealand Geographic Board (NZGB) (2000) after Father Coleman, a New Zealand chaplain, who traveled to Antarctica many times with the United States Antarctic Program.

77°26′51″S 167°33′41″E / 77.4474°S 167.5615°E / -77.4474; 167.5615. A peak about 890 metres (2,920 ft) high, located 1.5 nautical miles (2.8 km; 1.7 mi) west of Terra Nova Glacier and 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) south of Lewis Bay on the lower northeast slope of Mount Erebus. On November 28, 1979, an Air New Zealand McDonnell Douglas DC-10 aircraft on a scenic flight from Auckland crashed near this peak, claiming the lives of 237 passengers from eight countries and a crew of 20. In 1987, a stainless steel memorial cross was erected west of the peak. Te Puna Roim

Southern features

Features of the southern slopes of Mount Erebus include:

77°32′S 166°53′E / 77.533°S 166.883°E / -77.533; 166.883. A cone located on the west slopes of Mount Erebus, standing 1,800 meters (5,900 feet) high. From McMurdo Sound, it looks like a perfect pyramid of black rock, clearly visible against the ice. The cone is about 100 meters (330 feet) high and has a deep ditch around it, formed by strong winds. It was named by F. Debenham during the second climb of Mount Erebus in honor of F.J. Hooper, a member of the British Antarctic Expedition from 1910–13. Hooper was part of the team that made the second ascent.

77°32′26″S 166°51′01″E / 77.5405°S 166.8504°E / -77.5405; 166.8504. Two rock summits on the west slope of Mount Erebus, each about 1,500 meters (4,900 feet) high. This feature is 0.6 nautical miles (1.1 kilometers) southwest of Hooper’s Shoulder. It was named by the United States Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in 2000 after Katherine V. Cashman, a researcher from the United States Antarctic Research Program (USARP) who worked on Mount Erebus in 1978–79 and again in 1988–89. She later became a professor of geology at the University of Oregon.

77°35′S 166°47′E / 77.583°S 166.783°E / -77.583; 166.783. A tall rock cliff on the ice-covered southwest slopes of Mount Erebus, located 6 nautical miles (11 kilometers) east of Cape Barne. This cliff was mapped by the British Antarctic Expedition led by Scott in 1910–13 and was labeled "Bold Cliff" on maps from that time. It was later named Williams Cliff by US-ACAN in 1964 to honor Richard T. Williams, who died in 1956 when his tractor broke through the ice at McMurdo Sound.

77°36′49″S 166°46′02″E / 77.6135°S 166.7673°E / -77.6135; 166.7673. A narrow, broken ridge 2 nautical miles (3.7 kilometers) south of Williams Cliff on Ross Island. The ridge rises to about 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) and marks a slope on the north side of the Turks Head Ridge. Ice from this ridge flows toward the Pukaru Icefalls. It was named by US-ACAN in 2000 after the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, known as New Mexico Tech. Since 1981, many students from New Mexico Tech, led by Philip R. Kyle, have studied Mount Erebus for their graduate research.

77°34′S 166°58′E / 77.567°S 166.967°E / -77.567; 166.967. Three cones aligned on the southwest slopes of Mount Erebus, each about 1,800 meters (5,900 feet) high. These cones were named by members of the British Antarctic Expedition led by Scott in 1910–13.

77°38′S 166°49′E / 77.633°S 166.817°E / -77.633; 166.817. An ice-covered ridge extending from Turks Head up the slopes of Mount Erebus for several miles. This ridge was mapped by the British Antarctic Expedition led by Scott in 1910–13 and named for its connection to Turks Head.

77°38′20″S 166°54′29″E / 77.6388°S 166.908°E / -77.6388; 166.908. A rock bluff rising to about 600 meters (2,000 feet) on the southeast edge of the Turks Head Ridge. The bluff is 1.1 nautical miles (2.0 kilometers) east-northeast of Grazyna Bluff. It was named by US-ACAN in 2000 after Richard Esser, a member of New Mexico Tech field teams on Mount Erebus during the 1993–94 and 1994–95 seasons. Later, he worked as a technician at the New Mexico Geochronology Lab, where he studied rocks from Antarctica.

77°38′34″S 166°49′24″E / 77.6428°S 166.8232°E / -77.6428; 166.8232. A rock bluff rising to about 600 meters (2,000 feet) in the southern part of the Turks Head Ridge. The bluff is 1.5 nautical miles (2.8 kilometers) north-northeast of Turks Head. It was named by US-ACAN in 2000 after Grazyna Zreda-Gostynska, who worked on Mount Erebus in 1989–90 as part of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology team. She completed her doctoral dissertation on gas emissions from Mount Erebus while studying at the university.

77°35′38″S 167°16′35″E / 77.5940°S 167.2763°E / -77.5940; 167.2763. A long, north-south ridge 4.5 nautical miles (8.3 kilometers) long and 0.8 nautical miles (1.5 kilometers) wide on the south slopes of Mount Erebus. The ridge is completely covered in ice and slopes downward from about 2,200

Glaciers

77°29′S 167°06′E  /  77.483°S 167.100°E  / -77.483; 167.100 . A glacier located on the west side of Fang Ridge, which separates the old and new craters of Mount Erebus. Frank Debenham of the BrAE mapped it between 1910 and 1913 and named it in connection with Fang Ridge.

77°41′S 167°00′E  /  77.683°S 167.000°E  / -77.683; 167.000 . A glacier that flows from the lower south slopes of Mount Erebus, Ross Island, and moves west to Erebus Bay, where it forms the floating Erebus Glacier Tongue. The British National Antarctic Expedition (BrNAE), which took place from 1901 to 1904 under the leadership of Captain Robert Falcon Scott, named it in connection with Mount Erebus.

77°42′S 166°40′E  /  77.700°S 166.667°E  / -77.700; 166.667 . The part of the Erebus Glacier that extends from Ross Island into Erebus Bay, where some of it floats on water. The BrNAE, under Scott, mapped and named it between 1901 and 1904.

77°36′S 166°26′E  /  77.600°S 166.433°E  / -77.600; 166.433 . A steep glacier that flows down from the west slopes of Mount Erebus and ends on the west side of Ross Island between Cape Barne and Cape Evans, where it forms a steep ice cliff. The BrNAE discovered it between 1901 and 1904 under Scott. The British Antarctic Expedition, which took place from 1907 to 1909 under the leadership of Ernest Shackleton, named it after nearby Cape Barne.