The Quadi were a Germanic people during the Roman era, and they were often mentioned in Greek and Roman writings from about 20 AD to around 400 AD. By 20 AD, they had a kingdom centered in what is now western Slovakia, located north of the Roman border along the Danube River. They likely first settled near the Morava River and later expanded their control eastward, eventually reaching parts of present-day Hungary. This area had been partially left by the Celtic Boii and their rivals, the Dacians, a generation earlier. The Quadi were the easternmost of four related Suebian kingdoms that formed near the river frontier after 9 BC. This period was marked by major Roman invasions into western Germania to the north and Pannonia to the south. The other three kingdoms were the Hermunduri, Naristi (also called Varisti), and the Marcomanni, who were powerful neighbors to the west of the Quadi. Despite ongoing conflicts with the Romans, the Quadi survived and became an important cultural link between the people of Germania to the north, the Roman Empire to the south, and the Sarmatian peoples, such as the Iazyges, who settled between the Danube and Tisza rivers during the same time.

The Marcomannic Wars, which occurred during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his co-emperors, involved many destructive conflicts with the Quadi and their neighbors. At one point, these groups even invaded Italy. By 180 AD, when the emperor died on campaign in this region, new peace agreements were made between Rome and the Quadi. However, these agreements did not solve long-term problems in the area. People from distant regions occasionally caused disruptions, increasing tensions with Rome. Small-scale raids from the Sarmatian plain into Roman Pannonia continued, contributing to more conflicts between the Quadi and Romans in the third and fourth centuries. While the original Marcomanni settlements in the northern Bohemian forest became less important over time, the Quadi thrived near the Danube and became more culturally connected to both their Roman and Sarmatian neighbors.

Around 380 AD, the Middle Danubian region saw an influx of armed groups from distant parts of eastern Europe, including the Huns, Alans, and Goths. In 395 AD, Saint Jerome listed the Quadi and their neighbors, the Sarmatians, Marcomanni, and Vandals, as groups that had recently attacked nearby Roman provinces with these newcomers. In 409 AD, he again listed the Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Heruli, and people from Roman Pannonia as groups from the Danubian region who had moved west and occupied parts of Gaul. These were the last clear records of the Quadi. Because they were present in Gaul in 409 AD, the Quadi are believed to have been among the Suevi who later moved further west into Iberia by 409 AD and established the Kingdom of the Suebi in Gallaecia, now northern Spain and Portugal. This kingdom lasted over a century until it was defeated by the Visigoths and absorbed into their kingdom in 585 AD.

Meanwhile, until his death in 453 AD, Attila's empire controlled the Middle Danubian region. A later source claimed the Quadi fought under Attila at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451 AD. After Attila's death, smaller kingdoms were formed in or near the old Marcomanni and Quadi territories by the "Danube Suevi," as well as the Rugii, Heruli, and Sciri. These "Danube Suevi" likely included descendants of the Quadi, Marcomanni, and other Suebian groups. Their short-lived kingdom was defeated by the Ostrogoths at the Battle of Bolia in 469 AD. Some of them moved west under their king, Hunimund, into present-day western Austria and southern Germany, where they allied with the Alemanni. Others remained in the Middle Danube region and adapted to later conquerors, either as part of settled communities or among mobile groups during the "migration period." Like their neighbors, the Heruli, Rugii, and Sciri, many Quadi likely joined large forces that invaded Italy from the Middle Danube, including those led by Odoacer (476 AD), Theoderic the Great (493 AD), and the Suebian Langobards (starting in 568 AD). These groups are believed to have incorporated many Suebi into their ranks before moving into Italy.

Name

According to the Germanische Altertumskunde Online, the possible origins of the ethnonym are not clear and have many problems:

• Since Jacob Grimm (died 1863), some scholars have thought the name might be connected to the Dutch word kwaad, which means "angry, bad, evil, wrong, or poor quality." This word also appears in old German and English. However, it is unusual for a group to be named after a word with such a negative meaning. It might have been a name given by enemies to describe the group, or it could have been used to create fear.

• The name has also been linked to Germanic words like the English word quoth, which was the past tense of the old word quethe, meaning "to say" or "to declare." This word is still found in the modern term bequeath. However, the exact connection between this word and the ethnonym is not clear.

• Wolfgang Krause suggested the name might come from the Germanic word hwatjan, which means "to incite" or "to urge." However, the way the name is written in ancient texts does not match the expected changes in Germanic language sounds.

First reports and location

The Quadi are first mentioned in written records after their neighbors, the Marcomanni, settled in central Bohemia. The Marcomanni moved there after being defeated during the Germania campaign led by the elder Drusus around 9 BC. They later gained a new king named Maroboduus, who had been raised in Rome. Strabo, a writer around 23 AD, is believed to have written the earliest surviving reference to the Quadi, though parts of his text are unclear. He described a mountain range running parallel to the Danube but north of it, similar to a smaller version of the Alps. This range included the Hercynian forest, where tribes of the Suebi lived, including the Quadi. Strabo mentioned that the Quadi’s territory included Buiaimon, which is the original name for Bohemia, and that Maroboduus ruled from there. He noted that Maroboduus led several groups, including the Marcomanni, into this forested area. He became the ruler of the Suevi tribes within the forest and those outside it. However, Strabo’s spelling of "Quadi" with an "L" is unusual compared to later records, and it is unclear if Maroboduus truly lived in Quadi territory. These details suggest possible errors in the surviving text.

It is often believed that the Quadi settled in Moravia around the same time the Marcomanni moved to Bohemia. Some scholars think the name "Quadi" might have been new, while earlier Roman records referred to the same group as "Suebi." The Romans defeated a group called the Suebi after their battle with the Marcomanni in 9 BC, and some experts suggest these Suebi could have been the Quadi.

Another possibility is that the Quadi arrived in Bohemia before the Marcomanni. This idea is supported by archaeological findings showing that Elbe Germanic people lived in the region before the Marcomanni’s defeat. The material culture of the Quadi and Marcomanni is similar, making it hard to distinguish their territories. However, both groups shared cultural traits with the Elbe Germani, a people living near the Elbe and Saale rivers. This shared culture is called the "Grossromstedt horizon," influenced by the older Jastorf culture and the Przeworsk culture from Poland. In the area once inhabited by the Boii, a variant of this culture called the Plaňany-Group is found, showing traces of the earlier Celtic La Tène culture of the Boii, which had already been influenced by the Przeworsk culture.

Regardless of their origins, evidence suggests the Quadi initially lived near the Morava River in southwestern Slovakia, southern Moravia, and northeastern Lower Austria. Later, their population, possibly split into two groups, became more concentrated east of the Little Carpathians in modern-day Slovakia. They eventually expanded as far as Vác in present-day Hungary. At their peak, their kingdom may have extended west into Bohemia. Over time, the eastern Quadi became an important cultural link between the Romans, Sarmatians, and distant groups to the north and east.

A contemporary of Strabo, Velleius Paterculus, did not name the Quadi but described "Boiohaemum," where Maroboduus and the Marcomanni lived, as "plains surrounded by the Hercynian forest." He noted that this area was the only part of Germania not controlled by the Romans before their defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. Velleius also stated that Maroboduus controlled his neighbors through war or treaties. Hofeneder, a scholar, suggests that this means the Quadi were also under Maroboduus’s rule, though this is not certain. It is clear, however, that the Quadi and Marcomanni were closely connected for centuries.

Velleius wrote that Maroboduus trained his Bohemian soldiers to nearly Roman standards. Although Maroboduus avoided conflict with Rome, the Romans worried he might attack Italy. He provided refuge to those who had rebelled against Rome. Velleius noted that the closest Roman access to Bohemia was through Carnuntum, located between modern-day Vienna and Bratislava, near the Quadi’s territory where the Morava River meets the Danube.

When Maroboduus moved to Bohemia, the Quadi’s leader was likely named Tudrus. Tacitus, a Roman writer, is the first to clearly mention the Quadi in ancient records. Although archaeological evidence shows the Marcomanni and Quadi arrived in the region after the Boii population had declined, Tacitus claimed they drove the Boii out through bravery. He also noted that their kings came from the same ancient family or families.

To the east of the Quadi, Strabo mentioned that the Suevian neighbors of Maroboduus bordered the "Getae," which referred to the Dacians. Later, Pliny the Elder wrote that the Dacians were pushed east by the Sarmatian Iazyges into the mountainous region later called Dacia. Pliny questioned whether the boundary between the Iazyges and the Suevi, along with the kingdom of Vannius, was the Morava River or another river called the "Duria," which is now unclear. The 2nd-century Greek geographer Ptolemy placed the Quadi on the edge of Germania, defining the "Sarmatian mountains" as the border, which he described as running northeast from the Danube’s bend toward the Vistula River’s head, in modern-day Slovakia.

Ptolemy listed several groups living near the Quadi’s border. Between the Elbe and the Vistula’s head, south of the Asciburgius mountains, lived the Corconti and Buri. Further south were the Sidones, then the Cogni (possibly the Cotini), followed by the Visburgii. South of these was the Hercynian valley, and south of that valley were the Quadi. Beyond them were iron mines and the Luna Forest. Tacitus named four groups living north of the Marcomanni and Quadi: the Marsigni, Cotini (or "Gotini"), Osi, and Buri. These groups lived in a mountain range running east-west through "Suevia," separating them from the Lugii, a larger Germanic group. According to Tacitus, the Osi and Cotini did not speak Germanic languages and worked the mines, paying tribute to the Quadi and Sarmatians.

First century AD

In The Annals, Tacitus wrote that Maroboduus was removed from power by an exiled noble named Catualda around 18 AD. Catualda was later defeated by Vibilius, the king of the Hermunduri. The people who lived under Maroboduus and Catualda were moved by the Romans to an area near the Danube River, between the Morava and "Cusus" rivers. A Quadian named Vannius was made their king. Later, Tacitus mentioned that Drusus Caesar had made someone "king of the Suevi." Scholars believe the Romans may have created a protective area between themselves and other groups, but this idea is not agreed upon by all. The area where Vannius ruled the Marcomanni exiles is usually considered a separate state from the Quadi kingdom itself. However, the exact location of the Cusus River is unknown. Slovak archaeological research suggests the main area of Vannius’s kingdom was in the fertile southwestern lowlands of Slovakia around Trnava, east of the Little Carpathians. The swampy land between the Little Carpathians and the Danube River acted as a barrier against attacks from non-Roman Pannonia.

Geographically, Pliny the Elder described the Quadi area as the edge of Germania, with the Iazyges living outside of it and the kingdom of Vannius inside. This matches a later account by Ptolemy, who wrote about a "great nation" called the "Baimi" between the Quadi and the Danube. This group is likely the former Bohemians who once lived under Vannius. Ptolemy also noted the Rakatri and Rakatai, who lived near the "kampoi" (possibly "plains" or a bend in the Danube). A people named the Kampi or a river called the Kamp near Vienna may have been referenced. West of the Hercynian forest was the Gambreta forest, and south of this, west of the Quadi, lived the Marcomanni. South of them, west of the Baimi, were the Sudini, and further south along the Danube were the Adrabaecampi, which may not be a tribal name and is likely connected to the word "Kampi" used earlier.

Vannius personally gained wealth and power from the new situation but became unpopular. He was later removed from power by Vibilius and the Hermunduri, along with the neighboring Lugii, in 50/51 AD. Vannius’s soldiers during this conflict were foot soldiers, but he also requested help from his Sarmatian allies, the Iazyges. His sister’s sons, Vangio and Sido, then divided his kingdom between them as loyal Roman allies. Vannius was defeated and fled with his followers across the Danube, where they were given land in Roman Pannonia. This settlement is linked to Germanic artifacts found in Burgenland, west of Lake Neusiedl, in Roman Pannonia. Later, Quadi soldiers fought in the second battle of Bedriacum in 69 AD under Sido and Italicus, possibly Vangio’s son, in Italy. The presence of North Italian green-glazed pottery in southwestern Slovakia may have been brought there by soldiers stationed in Italy.

Tacitus wrote in the late first century that the Osi, who spoke a language similar to the Pannonian Aravisci near modern-day Budapest, and the Cotini, a Celtic-speaking people, mined iron in mountainous regions north of the Quadi, in present-day Slovakia. They

Second century

The relationship between the Romans and the Quadi and their neighbors became much more serious and lasting during the long series of conflicts called the Marcomannic Wars. These wars happened mainly during the rule of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who led the Roman Empire from 161 to 180.

In the 150s or 160s, 6,000 Langobardi (Lombards originally from present-day northern Germany) and Obii (a group whose identity is unclear) crossed the Lower Danube into Roman territory. They were quickly defeated by the Romans. Dio Cassius, a Roman historian, wrote that these events worried several other barbarian groups. Some of them chose Ballomarius, king of the Marcomanni, and ten other leaders to travel to the governor of Roman Pannonia in a peace mission. Oaths were made, and the envoys returned home. Some scholars believe the Quadi may have been involved in this attack or allowed it to happen. However, the Quadi and their neighbors were dealing with their own problems, including attacks from groups farther north. They had been trying for a long time to get more help from the Roman Empire. At the same time, the Romans were preparing for a military campaign in Germania. They knew Italy itself was under pressure but stayed diplomatic while dealing with a war in the Middle East and the Antonine plague. The Historia Augusta, a historical text, especially blamed the Marcomanni and Victohali for causing confusion, even as other tribes were pushed by distant barbarians.

A Roman offensive did not begin in 167, but two new legions were created. In 168, the two emperors, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius, started to move across the Alps. Either before the Romans began their campaign in 167 or after the Romans stopped moving in 169 (when Verus died), the Marcomanni and Quadi led an attack across the Danube and into Italy. They destroyed the town of Opitergium (now Oderzo) and attacked Aquileia, an important city. Regardless of the exact order of events, the Historia Augusta says that when the Romans acted, several barbarian kings withdrew, and some barbarians executed leaders who opposed Rome. In particular, the Quadi, after losing their king, said they would not choose a new leader without the emperors’ approval.

Marcus Aurelius returned to Rome but went north again in the autumn of 169. He set up a headquarters along the Danube in Carnuntum, located between present-day Vienna and Bratislava. From there, he could receive messages from groups living north of the Danube. Some groups were allowed to settle inside the Roman Empire, while others were recruited to fight for Rome. The Quadi were calmed, and in 171, they agreed to leave their alliance and returned 13,000 prisoners of war. They also gave horses and cattle as war contributions and promised not to allow the Marcomanni or Jazyges to pass through their land. However, by 173, the Quadi rebelled again and replaced their Roman-approved king, Furtius, with Ariogaisos. In a major battle between 172 and 174, a Roman force nearly lost until a sudden rainstorm helped them defeat the Quadi. This event is well-known because of Dio Cassius’s account and the Column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. By 175, cavalry from the Marcomanni, Naristae, and Quadi were forced to move to the Middle East. In 176, Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus celebrated a victory over Germania and Sarmatia.

The situation remained unstable in later years. In 177, the Romans declared a new war and attacked the Marcomanni, Hermunduri, Sarmatians, and Quadi. In 179, the Romans won a decisive battle against them at Laugaricio (now Trenčín in Slovakia), led by Marcus Valerius Maximianus. By 180 AD, the Quadi and Marcomanni were under Roman control, with 20,000 soldiers stationed in each of their lands. The Romans even blocked mountain passes to stop them from moving north to join the Semnones. Marcus Aurelius was planning to create a new Roman province called Marcomannia when he died in 180.

Third century

After the defeat of the Quadi and their allies, major changes occurred among the barbarians living outside the Roman borders. New powerful groups were mentioned for the first time, such as the Suevian Allemanni and Juthungi to the west of the Quadi, and the Goths to the east. Inside the Roman Empire, there were problems and instability known as the Crisis of the Third Century.

Around 214/215 AD, Dio Cassius wrote that because of attacks on Pannonia, Emperor Caracalla invited the Quadi king Gaiobomarus to meet him and then had him executed. According to this report, Caracalla said he had defeated the carelessness, greed, and dishonesty of the Germans through trickery, since these traits could not be conquered by force. He was proud of his "enmity with the Vandili and the Marcomani, who had been friends, and in having executed Gaïobomarus."

During the reign of Philip the Arab (244–249 AD), who stopped giving gifts to the Ukrainian Goths under the rule of Ostrogotha, the 6th-century writer Jordanes believed that the Marcomanni were paying tribute to Ostrogotha, and the princes of the Quadi were effectively slaves of the Goths.

By the middle of the third century, the Quadi seem to have ended their dependent relationship with Rome and began attacking with their eastern neighbors, the Sarmatians. Together, they repeatedly attacked Illyricum. A Roman campaign against the Quadi happened between 283–284 AD, and as a result, Emperor Carinus (co-emperor 283–285) and Numerian (co-emperor 284–285) celebrated these victories as personal triumphs in 283 and 284. However, the Quadi were again mentioned among attacking Germanic tribes in 285 AD. This situation seems to have been pacified during the reign of Diocletian (284–305 AD).

Fourth century

In the early 400s, there is evidence that the Quadi had a better relationship with the Romans. Their influence spread along the Danube River toward present-day Budapest. Their economy supported a wealthy group of nobles who adopted Roman customs.

In 357, a new conflict began during the rule of Emperor Constantius II (337–361). This conflict showed how the Quadi’s culture had become more similar to that of the Sarmatians and their eastern neighbors. The Quadi and Sarmatians raided Roman lands in Pannonia and Moesia. Ammianus Marcellinus described them as people who preferred raiding over open battles. They used long spears and armor made from polished horn pieces attached to linen shirts. They rode fast horses and often had multiple horses to keep them strong and rested.

In 358, the emperor crossed the Danube River, and resistance quickly ended. Leaders who negotiated with the emperor represented different groups. One was Prince Araharius, who ruled part of the Transiugitani and the Quadi. Another was Usafer, a noble who led some Sarmatians. The emperor declared the Sarmatians were Roman dependents and demanded hostages. He learned that the Sarmatians had social problems, and some nobles had fled. He appointed a new king, Zizais, who was the first to surrender. The emperor then met with Vitrodorus, the son of King Viduarius of the Quadi. The Quadi also gave hostages and drew their swords, which they revered, to swear loyalty. Next, the emperor moved to the Tisza River and attacked or enslaved many Sarmatians on the other side. King Viduarius was likely the ruler of the western Quadi. Constantius built a triumphal arch in Carnuntium (now called the Heidentor), but raids continued.

After Constantius died, Emperor Valentinian I (364–375) strengthened the borders. He fortified the northern and eastern sides of the Danube and ordered the construction of a garrisoned fort in Quadi territory by 373 AD. In 374, delays in building the fort led the Roman general to invite King Gabinius of the Quadi to dinner and then kill him. Ammianus wrote that the Quadi, who had been peaceful, suddenly rebelled. Neighboring tribes, including the Sarmatians, joined the attack and raided Roman lands.

Valentinian went to the Danube border, visiting Carnuntum (now damaged and deserted) and Aquincum (now part of Budapest). He sent one army into Quadi territory and another across the Danube near Budapest, where they destroyed enemy settlements. He spent the winter on the Roman side of the Danube in Bregetio (now Komárom). Quadi envoys begged for peace, but when they claimed the Romans had built a barrier unfairly, Valentinian became angry and died. His death ended this conflict, and both sides focused on larger problems in the Danubian region.

In 380, the Romans suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Adrianople, caused by groups like the Goths, Alans, and Huns moving from present-day Ukraine. Ammianus noted that the regions of the Marcomanni and Quadi were among the first affected by these groups. Though details are unclear, the Romans tried new methods to settle large numbers of newcomers. One group, led by Alatheus and Saphrax, was placed in Pannonia near the Quadi homeland and expected to serve in the Roman army.

It is unclear how the Quadi responded to these changes, but their name no longer appears in records of the region. It is likely many moved into Roman territory, while others joined large groups of mixed peoples moving across the Danube. After Emperor Theodosius I died in 395, Saint Jerome listed the Marcomanni and Quadi among groups causing destruction in Roman provinces from Constantinople to the Julian Alps, including Dalmatia and Pannonia. Claudian described these groups crossing the frozen Danube with wagons and using them as barriers against Roman forces. He noted that fertile lands between the Black Sea and Adriatic became deserts, including Dalmatia and Pannonia. At the same time, Gothic general Alaric I, who had fought for Theodosius, began a rebellion after Roman conflicts following Theodosius’s death. Claudian claimed Alaric was incited by an Eastern Roman official named Rufinus. The exact link between Alaric and the Danube-crossing groups remains unclear.

After the fourth century

The last known record of the Quadi as a distinct group comes from a letter written by Saint Jerome in 409. In this letter, he lists the Quadi among several groups living in Gaul at that time, including the Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Allemanni, and Pannonians. Scholars note that the Saxons, Burgundians, and Allemanni were already well-known near the Rhine, while the Alans had recently arrived from Ukraine and had previously served in the Roman military. The other groups, such as the Vandals and Sarmatians, were likely long-time neighbors of the Quadi from the Middle Danube region. The Pannonians, who lived within the Roman Empire, were the Quadi’s neighbors to the south. Historical writings, such as the Cosmographia by Julius Honorius and the Liber Generationis, suggest that the Heruli had already settled near the Danube, close to the Marcomanni and Quadi. The Gepids had also settled near their future home in Dacia by the 3rd century, where they lived near the Quadi’s eastern neighbors.

The reasons for the sudden movement of many Middle Danubian groups westward toward Gaul are not fully understood, but several theories are often discussed. In 401, the poet Claudian wrote about unrest in Raetia, a region troubled by the local Vindelici people while the Roman general Stilicho was fighting an invasion by Alaric, a Gothic leader. Claudian described how some groups broke their agreements with the Romans and seized land in Noricum. Stilicho’s forces reportedly gained "Vandal spoils," leading scholars to believe that the Vandals were involved. Some propose that these Vandals were the same groups that later moved to Hispania, including the Silingi and Hasdingi. This suggests the Vandals had already gathered near the Rhine.

In 406, the Vandals and Alans crossed the Rhine, and around the same time, Radagaisus, a Gothic leader from outside the empire, attacked Italy with a large force from the Middle Danube. Scholars have linked these events to the westward movement of the Vandals and others.

Many scholars believe that the Quadi mentioned by Jerome in 409, and possibly others on his list, had previously entered Gaul in a large and coordinated crossing of the Rhine involving the Vandals and Alans, which is traditionally dated to December 31, 406 AD. Another theory suggests that the Quadi changed their name to Suevi and later joined the Vandals and Alans in conquering Hispania. Some modern scholars argue that the Quadi among the Spanish Suevi lost their name because they were part of a mixed group that included other Suevi. However, records are incomplete, and scholars disagree on how many Quadi moved to Hispania. For example, Castritius believed most Quadi became Suevi and settled in Spain, while others suggest the Spanish Suevi came from different groups, such as the Alemanni. Medieval historian Gregory of Tours thought the Suevi were Alemanni, and some scholars, like Reynolds, proposed the Spanish Suevi came from northern Germany and may have arrived by ship.

There is no direct evidence linking the Quadi to the 406 crossing, but two near-contemporary records suggest the Suevi were involved. Hydatius wrote that in 409, the Alans, Hasdingi and Silingi Vandals, and Suevi entered Hispania together. Orosius noted that the Suevi fought alongside the Vandals, Alans, and Burgundians during a crossing when the Franks tried to defend Gaul. Orosius claimed these groups were part of a movement led by Stilicho, a Roman general whose father had been a Vandal officer. However, modern scholars do not accept this claim. These sources sometimes support the idea that the Quadi in Gaul changed their name to Suevi.

Reynolds argued against the theory that the Quadi became the Iberian Suevi, stating that if they had, it would be unlikely for later writers to forget their name. He also questioned the reliability of Hydatius and Orosius, noting that the Gallic Chronicle of 452 recorded the Suevi arriving in Hispania in 408, before the letter of Jerome and the 406 crossing.

When the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi arrived in Hispania, the region was controlled by a rebel Roman general named Gerontius, who made agreements with them as military allies. The groups divided Hispania into four kingdoms with Gerontius’s approval. After Gerontius’s defeat, the Roman authorities rejected these agreements, and the Visigoths began to challenge the kingdoms. After many Vandals and Alans moved to Carthage, the Suevi were the last to hold an independent kingdom in Hispania, which they maintained until 585, when they became part of the Visigothic kingdom.

By the early 5th century, the Middle Danube region was under the control of the Huns and their allies, and Roman authority there was weak. In 427, the Chronicle of Marcellinus Comes noted that the Roman Empire reclaimed Pannonia, which had been held by the Huns for 50 years. However, in 433, Flavius Aëtius allowed the Huns to keep Pannonia.

Although there is no direct evidence that the Quadi continued to exist under their old name under Attila’s rule, Paulus Diaconus, writing centuries later, listed them among the peoples Attila could call upon. Alongside the Goths and Gepids, he named the Marcomanni, Suebi, Quadi, Herules, Thuringi, and Rugii. This suggests the Quadi might have fought for Attila, such as at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451. However, this source is much later, and modern scholars doubt whether the Marcomanni and Quadi were still known by those names in 451, as no contemporary sources mention them in this period.

After Attila’s death in 453, smaller groups that had lived under his rule began to appear in records, but instead of the Marcomanni and Quadi, only Suevians are mentioned. Following the Battle of Nedao in 454, when Attila’s sons and their Ostrogothic allies were defeated, the victors formed independent kingdoms north of the Middle Danube. The largest of these, the Gepids, settled in Dacia. To the west, near the Danube, the Rugii, Heruli, and Sciri lived where the Marcomanni and Quadi had been. To the south, in the former Roman province of Valeria, a Suevian kingdom existed. Many scholars believe this group included Suevian peoples like the Quadi, who had previously used other