Many governments have built permanent research stations in Antarctica, and these bases are spread out across the continent. Unlike the floating ice stations in the Arctic, Antarctic research stations are built on rocks or ice that stay in one place.

Most of these stations are open all year. Of the 56 countries that signed the Antarctic Treaty, 55 countries (as of 2023) operate summer-only and all-year-round research stations on the continent. The number of people working on scientific research and supporting tasks changes depending on the season. About 4,800 people are present during the summer, and around 1,200 people stay during the winter (June). In addition to these permanent stations, about 30 temporary camps are set up each summer to help with specific research projects.

History

During the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the late 1800s, the first bases on Antarctica were built. In 1898, Carsten Borchgrevink, a Norwegian and British explorer, led the British Antarctic Expedition to Cape Adare, where he built the first Antarctic base on Ridley Beach. This expedition is now called the Southern Cross Expedition, named after the ship used. Most of the team members were Norwegian, but the money for the expedition came from Britain, given by Sir George Newnes. The 10 members of the expedition explored Robertson Bay, west of Cape Adare, using dog teams. Later, after being picked up by the ship at the base, they went ashore on the Ross Ice Shelf for short trips. The expedition hut still stands in good condition and is often visited by tourists.

The hut was later used by Scott's Northern Party, led by Victor Campbell, for a year in 1911. This happened after the party's attempt to explore the eastern end of the ice shelf discovered Roald Amundsen already on land, preparing for his journey to the South Pole.

In 1903, William S. Bruce led the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition to Antarctica. One goal was to build a weather station in the area. After failing to find land, Bruce decided to return to Laurie Island in the South Orkneys to find a safe place to dock. The islands were well-suited for a weather station, and their closeness to South America allowed a permanent station to be built. Bruce started a program of work that included weather observations, collecting marine samples, studying plants, and gathering biological and geological samples.

The most important task during this time was building a stone house called "Omond House." This house was meant to be living quarters for people who would stay on Laurie Island to run the planned weather laboratory. The house was built using local materials and the dry stone method, with a roof made from wood and canvas. The finished house was 20 feet by 20 feet (6 meters by 6 meters), had two windows, and was designed to house six people. Rudmose Brown wrote: "Considering we had no mortar or masons' tools, it is a very strong and well-built house. I believe it will still be standing in 100 years."

Bruce later offered to give the station and instruments to Argentina, provided the government agreed to continue the scientific mission. Bruce told British officer William Haggard about his plan in December 1903, and Haggard approved the agreement.

The ship Scotia returned to Laurie Island on January 14, 1904, bringing Argentine officials from the Ministry of Agriculture, National Meteorological Office, Ministry of Livestock, and National Postal and Telegraphs Office. In 1906, Argentina announced the establishment of a permanent base on the South Orkney Islands.

Little progress occurred for the next 40 years.

The United States, led by Admiral Richard E. Byrd, built five bases near the Bay of Whales, named Little America, between 1929 and 1958. All of these bases have since moved away from the mainland due to icebergs.

Before World War II began, German planes dropped swastika markers across Queen Maud Land to claim the area as German territory (New Swabia).

In 1943, the British launched Operation Tabarin to establish a presence in Antarctica. The main goal was to strengthen British claims to uninhabited islands and parts of Antarctica, supported by Argentina's sympathy toward Germany.

Led by Lieutenant James Marr, a 14-person team left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and HMS Fitzroy, on January 29, 1944. Marr had previously traveled with British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton on his final Antarctic expedition in 1921–22. Bases were built in February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on Deception Island, where the Union Flag was raised instead of Argentine flags, and at Port Lockroy on Graham Land on February 11. A third base was built at Hope Bay on February 13, 1945, after an earlier attempt to deliver supplies failed on February 7, 1944. These were the first permanent bases built on the Antarctic mainland.

After the war, international activity in Antarctica increased greatly. Chile organized its First Chilean Antarctic Expedition in 1947–48. Among other achievements, the Chilean president, Gabriel González Videla, personally opened one of the expedition's bases, becoming the first head of state to visit Antarctica. The UK established the Signy Research Station in 1947, Australia built Mawson Station in 1954, and France built Dumont d'Urville Station in 1956. In the same year, the United States built McMurdo Station and the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the Soviet Union built Mirny Station.

The Antarctic Treaty, signed on December 1, 1959, by 12 countries, stated that scientific research in Antarctica can continue, but all findings must be shared. The treaty also said Antarctica can only be used for peaceful purposes, and mining is not allowed. Scientific research is the only permitted activity on the continent. As more countries built research stations in Antarctica, the number of treaty signatories grew, with 56 signatories as of 2023. Of these, 55 operate research stations in Antarctica. Seven countries also made territorial claims on Antarctica, and four reserved the right to do so in the future. However, research facilities have also been built in areas claimed by other countries.

Permanent active stations

The United States has the southernmost base, Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the largest base and research station in Antarctica, McMurdo Station. The second-southernmost base is the Chinese Kunlun Station at 80°25′2″S in the summer, and the Russian Vostok Station at 78°27′50″S in the winter.

The sub-Antarctic zone is a region in the Southern Hemisphere, found just north of Antarctica.

Impact and pollution

In 2023, a research report from an Australian team showed that pollution from international research stations was similar to pollution found in some of the world's most busy ports.