The Sea Peoples were a group of tribes believed to have attacked Egypt and other areas in the Eastern Mediterranean around 1200 BC during the Late Bronze Age. This idea was first suggested in the 19th century by Egyptologists Emmanuel de Rougé and Gaston Maspero, based on evidence such as carvings on the Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu. Later research expanded on this idea, trying to connect these sources to other evidence from the Late Bronze Age, such as migration, piracy, and destruction. Early versions of this idea thought the Sea Peoples were a main reason for the collapse of the Late Bronze Age, but more recent studies usually see them as a sign of problems that were already happening before their attacks.
The Sea Peoples included groups that are well-known, such as the Lukka and Peleset, as well as others like the Weshesh, whose origins are unclear. Ideas about where these groups came from are still being studied. Some appear to have been from Aegean regions, while others may have come from places like Sicily, Sardinia, Crete, Southern Italy, Cyprus, and Western Anatolia.
History of the concept
The idea of the Sea Peoples was first suggested by Emmanuel de Rougé, a curator at the Louvre, in his 1855 work Note on Some Hieroglyphic Texts Recently Published by Mr. Greene. He based this idea on descriptions of battles fought by Ramesses III, shown on the Second Pylon at Medinet Habu, using recent photographs of the temple taken by John Beasley Greene. De Rougé observed that in the hieroglyphs, the Sherden and Teresh groups were marked with the label "peuples de la mer," referring to the prisoners shown at the base of the Fortified East Gate. In 1867, de Rougé published Excerpts of a dissertation on the attacks directed against Egypt by the peoples of the Mediterranean in the 14th century BC, focusing on battles involving Ramesses II and Merneptah. He also provided translations for many geographic names in the hieroglyphic inscriptions. Later, de Rougé became a professor of Egyptology at the Collège de France and was succeeded by Gaston Maspero. Maspero expanded on de Rougé’s research and wrote The Struggle of the Nations in 1895–96, explaining the theory of seaborne migrations in detail for a broader audience during a time when the idea of population movements was widely understood.
The migration theory was later supported by scholars such as Eduard Meyer and became widely accepted among Egyptologists and Orientalists. However, since the early 1990s, some scholars have questioned this theory. The historical record about these groups comes mainly from seven ancient Egyptian sources. While the term "of the sea" does not appear in all descriptions of these peoples, modern books often use the term "Sea Peoples" to describe nine different groups.
Primary documentary records
The Medinet Habu inscriptions are the main source that first described the Sea Peoples. These inscriptions are the basis of most important discussions about them.
Three separate stories from Egyptian records mention more than one of the nine peoples. These stories are found in six different sources. A seventh source, which is a list (called an Onomasticon) of 610 names, also refers to more than one of the nine peoples. These sources are summarized in the table below.
Records of the Sea Peoples or specific groups are linked to two campaigns by Ramesses II, a pharaoh of Egypt’s 19th Dynasty. These campaigns happened during his second year of rule, when he fought pirates near the Nile Delta, and during his fifth year, when he faced the Hittite Empire and allies at the Battle of Kadesh. The exact years of Ramesses II’s reign are unknown, but they are believed to have occurred mostly during the first half of the 13th century BC.
In his second year, Ramesses II defeated the Sherden (also called Shardana) pirates who attacked the Nile Delta. Some of the pirates were captured and later joined the Egyptian army. This event is recorded on the Tanis Stele II. An inscription on this stele describes the Sherden as a dangerous threat to Egypt’s Mediterranean coast. It says:
“The unruly Sherden, who no one had ever known how to fight, came boldly sailing in their warships from the sea, and no one could stop them.”
The captured Sherden soldiers fought for Egypt during the Battle of Kadesh. Another stele, the Aswan Stele, mentions Ramesses II’s efforts to defeat groups, including those from the “Great Green,” which was the Egyptian name for the Mediterranean Sea.
The Battle of Kadesh happened during Ramesses II’s fifth year of rule. It was part of a campaign against the Hittites and their allies in the Levant. Both Egypt and the Hittites prepared to fight at Kadesh, a strategic location. Ramesses divided his forces, but they were attacked by the Hittites and nearly defeated. Ramesses was separated from his troops and had to fight alone to return to them. After reinforcements arrived, the Egyptians drove the Hittites back to Kadesh. Though Egypt won, neither side achieved its main goals.
At home, Ramesses II had his scribes write an official account of the battle, called “the Bulletin,” which was widely shared. Ten copies of this account remain today on temples in Abydos, Karnak, Luxor, and Abu Simbel. These copies include reliefs showing the battle. Another account, the “Poem of Pentaur,” also survived.
The poem describes how the captured Sherden soldiers helped plan the battle, suggesting they had the idea to divide Egyptian forces into four groups. There is no evidence that the Sherden worked with the Hittites or acted against Egypt. Ramesses II never recorded any suspicion about their intentions.
The poem lists the groups that fought at Kadesh as allies of the Hittites. Some of these groups were part of the Sea Peoples mentioned in earlier Egyptian records. Others were groups that later participated in large migrations during the 12th century BC (see Appendix A to the Battle of Kadesh).
During the reign of Pharaoh Merneptah (1213–1203 BC), the fourth king of the 19th Dynasty, a major event was his battle at Perire in the western delta during his fifth and sixth years of rule. He fought a group called the “Nine Bows,” which caused severe damage to the region. The area was described as “forsaken as pasturage for cattle, left waste from the time of the ancestors.”
The battle against the Nine Bows is recorded in three sources: the Great Karnak Inscription, the Athribis Stele, and the Cairo Column. The Cairo Column is a section of a granite column now in the Cairo Museum. It was first published in 1881 and includes two sentences: one confirming the date as Year 5, and another mentioning the “Shekelesh.” The Athribis Stele, found in Athribis, was published in 1883 and also describes the battle. The Merneptah Stele from Thebes records the peace that followed the battle but does not mention the Sea Peoples.
The Nine Bows were led by the king of Libya and included a revolt in Canaan involving Gaza, Ascalon, Yenoam, and the Israelites. It is unclear which groups were consistently part of the Nine Bows, but the battle included Libyans, some Meshwesh, and possibly groups from the eastern Mediterranean, such as the Hittites or Syrians, and the Israelites. The Karnak inscription also mentions sea peoples who arrived by ship from the western delta or Cyrene:
“[Beginning of the victory that his majesty achieved in the land of Libya] – Ekwesh, Teresh, Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Northerners coming from all lands.”
Later in the inscription, Merneptah learns of an attack by the Nine Bows:
“…the third season, saying: ‘The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen – Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh, taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children – leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire.’”
Merneptah was angered by this report and gave a speech to his court. He dreamed of receiving a sword from the god Ptah, which he used to defeat the enemy. The inscription says that Amun, a god, protected the Egyptian soldiers. After six hours of fighting, the Nine Bows surrendered, abandoning their weapons and fleeing. Merneptah claimed to have killed 6,000 soldiers and captured 9,000. To confirm the numbers, he collected the penises of uncircumcised enemies and the hands of circumcised ones. This showed that the Ekwesh were circumcised, leading some to question if they were Greek.
Many records about the Sea Peoples come from the reign of Ramesses III (1186–
Other documentary records
Other Egyptian records mention one group without mentioning others.
The Amarna letters, from around the middle of the 14th century BC, include four references to the Sea Peoples. Padiiset's Statue mentions the Peleset, the Cairo Column mentions the Shekelesh, the Story of Wenamun mentions the Tjekker, and 13 other Egyptian sources mention the Sherden.
The earliest group later known as part of the Sea Peoples was first mentioned in Egyptian hieroglyphs on the Abishemu obelisk. This obelisk was discovered in the Temple of the Obelisks at Byblos by Maurice Dunand. The inscription names "Kukunnis, son of Lukka," described as "the Lycian." The date of this inscription is estimated to be either 2000 or 1700 BC.
Some Sea Peoples are mentioned in four Ugaritic texts. The last three of these texts seem to describe events leading to the destruction of the city around 1180 BC. These letters are dated to the early 12th century BC. The last king of Ugarit was Ammurapi, who ruled from about 1191 to 1182 BC. During this time, he was described as a young man in the records.
Groups
The list of Sea Peoples groups includes some that are clearly known and others that are not.
The Lukka people are mentioned in many Hittite and Egyptian records. Although their lands were later known as Lycia, the Lukka people were often moving and not settled in one place. They did not form a single kingdom but instead had a political system without a central ruler. The Lukka were often described as fighters, rebels, and pirates. They fought against the Hittites as part of the Assuwa group and later fought with the Hittites during the Battle of Kadesh.
Karkiya was a region in western Anatolia noted in Hittite and Egyptian records. It was ruled by a group of leaders rather than a king and was not a single political unit. Karkiya had a complicated relationship with the Hittite Empire, sometimes working with them and sometimes not. Karkiyans likely fought for the Hittites during the Battle of Kadesh, possibly as paid soldiers. Some scholars suggest the name Karkiya might be connected to the later region of Caria, but this is not certain.
Historians usually link the Peleset to the later Philistines. The Peleset are believed to have come from the Aegean region. This connection is supported by ancient texts like Genesis 10:14 and Deuteronomy 2:23, which mention the Philistines in relation to Caphtor and Casluhim. Archaeological evidence, such as Aegean-style pottery found in Philistine areas, and genetic studies showing European ancestry in places like Ashkalon, support this idea. These newcomers likely adapted to local cultures and married into local families over time.
The Shekelesh are mentioned in the Great Karnak Inscription, where they are described as soldiers helping the Libyan ruler Meryey. The Pharaoh Merneptah claimed to have killed between 200 and 222 of them. They may also appear in Hittite records as the Shikalayu, though this is not confirmed. Some scholars suggest a possible link to Sicily, but evidence is limited, and it is unclear whether Sicily was their original home or a later settlement.
The Sherden are mentioned in records from Ramesses II, who claimed to have defeated them in 1278 BC when they attacked Egypt’s coast. Many Sherden were later added to Ramesses II’s personal guard. They may also be referenced in the Amarna Letters as "še-er-ta-an-nu." Some archaeologists believe the Sherden were connected to the Nuragic people of Sardinia due to similarities in names, weapons, and locations in the Mediterranean. Nuragic pottery from the 12th century found in Cyprus may support this idea.
The Weshesh are the least known of the Sea Peoples. They are only mentioned in records from Ramesses III’s reign, and no images of them have ever been found.
The Ekwesh and Denyen are possibly linked to the ancient Greek names Achai(w)oí and Danaoí, which appear in Homer’s epics.
The Tjeker are mentioned in the Story of Wenamun and fought with the Egyptians in the Battle of Perire and the Battle of the Delta during Ramesses III’s rule. They are believed to have lived along the coast of early Palestine and helped build Tel Dor into a larger city. Their origins are unknown, though some scholars suggest they may have come from Crete or the Teucri tribe near Troy. However, this idea is considered uncertain by some historians.