The Anunnaki (also written as Anunaki, Annunaki, Anunna, Ananaki, and other forms) were gods worshipped by the ancient Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians. Early Sumerian writings, from the Post-Akkadian period, describe the Anunnaki as part of a group of gods. They were believed to be children of An, the god of the sky, and Ki, the goddess of the earth. Their main role was to decide the future of humans.

Etymology

In Sumerian, the name of this group of gods is written in different ways, such as "a-nun-na," "a-nun-na-ke 4 -ne," or "a-nun-na." These forms may mean "princely offspring," "royal offspring," or "offspring/progeny/seed of princes." Because this name was likely spoken as "anunak," it became the word "anunnak(k)u" in the Akkadian language. The form "Anunnaki" is a version of this word used to show possession, but it is not correct to use it as a proper name. There is no connection between the word "Anunnaki" and the Sumerian god An, who ruled the sky.

The Anunnaki were believed to be the children of An and Ki, the earth goddess. Samuel Noah Kramer says Ki was the same as Ninhursag, a Sumerian mother goddess. Enlil, the oldest of the Anunnaki, was the god of air and the most important god in the Sumerian religion. The Sumerians believed that before Enlil was born, the sky and earth were joined together. Enlil then separated the sky and earth, taking the earth with him while his father An took the sky.

Worship and iconography

The Anunnaki are mainly found in written stories from ancient times. There is very little proof that people worshipped them in religious groups, which may be because each Anunnaki member had their own separate religious group. No complete images of all the Anunnaki together have been found, though some pictures show two or three of them together. In ancient Mesopotamia, gods were almost always shown as human-like in shape. They were believed to have great power and were often pictured as very large. These gods wore a special material called melam, which made them look very impressive. Melam was also worn by heroes, kings, giants, and demons. Seeing a god's melam caused a tingling feeling in humans, called "ni." Gods were usually shown wearing horned headpieces made of up to seven stacked pairs of ox horns. They also wore clothing decorated with gold and silver.

Ancient Mesopotamians believed their gods lived in Heaven, after earlier stories said they once visited Earth. A god's statue was considered the physical form of the god. Because of this, statues were carefully cared for by priests. These priests dressed the statues and placed food before them as if the gods were eating. A god's temple was thought to be their actual home. The gods had large boats stored in their temples, which were used to move their statues along water during religious events. They also had chariots for moving statues on land. Sometimes, a god's statue was taken to a battlefield so the god could watch the battle. Major gods, including the Anunnaki, were believed to meet in a group called the "assembly of the gods," where they made important decisions. This group was seen as a spiritual version of the human government system during the Third Dynasty of Ur (around 2112 BCE to 2004 BCE).

Mythology

The earliest known use of the word "Anunnaki" comes from writings created during the time of Gudea (around 2144–2124 BCE) and the Third Dynasty of Ur. In the oldest texts, the term refers to the most powerful and important gods in the Sumerian religion: the descendants of An, the god of the sky. This group likely included the "seven gods who decree": An, Enlil, Enki, Ninhursag, Nanna, Utu, and Inanna.

Some gods are described as part of the Anunnaki, but no complete list of all their names has survived. They are often mentioned as a group in stories, but Sumerian texts do not agree on how many Anunnaki there were or what their roles were. Originally, the Anunnaki were believed to be powerful heavenly gods. In the poem Enki and the World Order, the Anunnaki honor Enki, sing praises for him, and live among the people of Sumer. The same poem says the Anunnaki "decide the fates of mankind."

Most major Sumerian gods were linked to specific cities and were believed to protect those cities. Each god was thought to live permanently in the city’s temple. One text mentions up to fifty Anunnaki connected to the city of Eridu. In Inanna’s Descent into the Underworld, only seven Anunnaki are listed as living in the Underworld and acting as judges. Inanna faces trial before them for trying to take over the Underworld; they find her guilty of pride and sentence her to death.

Important Sumerian gods were associated with celestial objects. Inanna was linked to the planet Venus. Utu was connected to the sun. Nanna was the moon. An was tied to all stars in the equatorial sky, Enlil to stars in the northern sky, and Enki to stars in the southern sky. Enlil’s path across the sky was a circle around the north celestial pole, while An and Enki’s paths crossed at different points.

Respect brings favor, sacrifices help people live longer, and prayers can fix mistakes. Those who fear the gods are not treated unfairly. Those who fear the Anunnaki may live longer.

Akkadian texts from the second millennium BCE describe the Anunnaki similarly to Inanna’s Descent into the Netherworld, showing them as Underworld gods. In a shorter Akkadian version of the story, Ereshkigal, the Underworld queen, says she "drinks water with the Anunnaki." Later, she tells her servant Namtar to bring the Anunnaki from Egalgina to "decorate the threshold steps with coral" and "seat them on golden thrones."

During the Old Babylonian Period (around 1830–1531 BCE), a new group of gods called the Igigi was introduced. The relationship between the Anunnaki and the Igigi is unclear. Sometimes, they are used as synonyms, but in writings like The Poem of Erra, they are clearly different. In the late Akkadian Atra-Hasis epic, the Igigi are the sixth generation of gods forced to work for the Anunnaki. After forty days, the Igigi rebel, and Enki, an Anunnaki, creates humans to replace them.

From the Middle Babylonian Period (around 1592–1155 BCE) onward, the name "Anunnaki" was used for Underworld gods, while "Igigi" referred to heavenly gods. During this time, Damkina, Nergal, and Madānu were listed as powerful Anunnaki, along with Marduk, the main god of ancient Babylon.

In the standard Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh (around 1200 BCE), Utnapishtim, the survivor of the Great Flood, describes the Anunnaki as seven judges of the Underworld who cause the land to burn as the storm approaches. Later, when the flood happens, Ishtar (the East Semitic version of Inanna) and the Anunnaki mourn the loss of humanity.

In the Babylonian Enûma Eliš, Marduk assigns positions to the Anunnaki. A later Babylonian version of the story mentions 600 Anunnaki of the Underworld and 300 of the heavens, showing a complex Underworld belief system. In gratitude, the Anunnaki, called the "Great Gods," build Esagila, a grand temple for Marduk, Ea, and Ellil. In the eighth-century BCE Poem of Erra, the Anunnaki are described as brothers of Nergal and enemies of humans.

A damaged text from the Neo-Assyrian Period (911–612 BCE) describes Marduk leading his army of Anunnaki to the sacred city of Nippur, causing a flood. The flood forces the gods of Nippur to hide in the Eshumesha temple of Ninurta. Enlil is angry at Marduk’s actions and orders the Eshumesha gods to imprison Marduk and the Anunnaki. The Anunnaki are captured, but Marduk sends his leader Mushteshirhablim to rebel against the Eshumesha gods and alerts Nabu, the god of writing. When the Eshumesha gods hear Nabu speak, they leave their temple to find him. Marduk defeats the Eshumesha gods and takes 360 of them as prisoners, including Enlil. Enlil argues that the Eshumesha gods are innocent, so Marduk puts them on trial before the Anunnaki. The text ends with a warning from Damkianna (another name for Ninhursag) to the gods and humans, urging them not to repeat the war between the Anunnaki and the Eshumesha gods.

In the mythologies of the Hurrians and Hittites (flourishing around the mid to late second millennium BCE), the oldest generation of gods was believed to have been driven to the Underworld by younger gods, ruled by the goddess Lelwani. Hittite scribes identified these deities as the Anunnaki. In ancient Hurrian, the Anunnaki were called karuileš šiuneš ("former ancient gods") or *

Pseudoarchaeology and conspiracy theories

Over a series of books, starting with Chariots of the Gods? in 1968, pseudoarchaeologist Erich von Däniken suggested that extraterrestrial beings called "ancient astronauts" visited Earth long ago. He claimed that early religions were influenced by contact with these aliens and used Sumerian texts and the Old Testament as evidence for his ideas.

In his 1976 book The Twelfth Planet, Zecharia Sitchin argued that the Anunnaki were advanced alien beings from a planet called Nibiru. He said they arrived on Earth about 500,000 years ago and built bases to mine gold after discovering Earth’s rich resources. Sitchin claimed the Anunnaki combined their species with early humans, called Homo erectus, through a process similar to in vitro fertilization to create humans as workers. He also said the Anunnaki had to leave Earth temporarily when glaciers melted, causing a great flood that destroyed their bases. After returning, they rebuilt their bases and taught humans agriculture to help with the work.

Ronald H. Fritze wrote that Sitchin believed the Anunnaki built ancient structures like pyramids and other monuments, which some ancient astronaut theorists say were impossible to build without advanced technology. Sitchin expanded on these ideas in later books, including The Stairway to Heaven (1980) and The Wars of Gods and Men (1985). In The End of Days: Armageddon and the Prophecy of the Return (2007), Sitchin predicted the Anunnaki would return to Earth, possibly by 2012, a date linked to the end of the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar. Historians have rejected Sitchin’s work as pseudoarchaeology, saying he misinterpreted Sumerian texts by taking quotes out of context, shortening them, and using incorrect translations.

David Icke, a British conspiracy theorist known for his reptilian theory, claimed that the reptilian overlords in his ideas are actually the Anunnaki. Influenced by Sitchin’s writings, Icke adapted them to support his own New Age and conspiracy beliefs. His version of the Anunnaki includes far-right ideas about a superior Aryan race descended from the Anunnaki, as well as references to dragons, Dracula, and draconian laws. These elements are connected only by similar-sounding words. Icke developed his theories in the 1990s and wrote several books about them.