Tartessos (Spanish: Tartesos) is an ancient society that lived in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula from the late Bronze Age until about 500 BC. Archaeological findings show that they used a writing system called Tartessian, which has about 97 inscriptions. The language of these inscriptions has not been fully understood because there is not enough information. Tartessos was the first known kingdom in southwestern Iberia to be recognized as a political entity.

Historians mention Tartessos in their writings as a mythical or legendary city and its surrounding culture on the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River in modern-day Andalusia, Spain. References to Tartessos appear in Greek and Near Eastern sources from the first millennium BC. For example, the Greek historian Herodotus described it as a place beyond the Pillars of Hercules. Roman writers often repeated Greek accounts, but by the end of the millennium, the name Tartessos was no longer used. Some sources suggest the city may have been destroyed by flooding.

The Tartessians were wealthy because of their access to metals. In the fourth century BC, the historian Ephorus wrote about a prosperous market called Tartessos, where tin, gold, and copper were traded. Tin was valuable during the Bronze Age because it was needed to make bronze and was rare. Herodotus noted that a king of Tartessos named Arganthonios welcomed Greek traders from Asia Minor, called the Phocaeans, who were among the first Greeks to reach Iberia.

The Greek writer Pausanias recorded that Myron, a ruler of Sicyon, built a treasury to celebrate a victory in a chariot race at the Olympic Games. Inside the treasury, he created two rooms with different styles: one with Doric design and one with Ionic design, both made of bronze. The Eleans, who managed the Olympic Games, said the bronze came from Tartessos.

The people of Tartessos traded with the Phoenicians, who arrived in Iberia around the eighth century BC. The Phoenicians built their own harbor nearby, called Gadir (Ancient Greek: Γάδειρα, Latin: Gades, modern-day Cádiz).

Location

Several early sources, such as Aristotle, describe Tartessos as a river. Aristotle wrote that the river begins in the Pyrene Mountain (now known as the Pyrenees) and flows into the sea beyond the Pillars of Hercules, which is today called the Strait of Gibraltar. However, no river exists that crosses the Iberian Peninsula.

In the fourth century BC, the Greek geographer and explorer Pytheas, as recorded by Strabo in the first century AD, stated that the Turduli people’s homeland was located north of Turdetania. This region was where the kingdom of Tartessos was believed to be, in the valley of the Baetis River, which is now known as the Guadalquivir River in southern Spain.

Pausanias, who wrote in the second century AD, described the river and the city’s location:

Some say Tartessus is a river in the land of the Iberians, flowing into the sea through two mouths. Between these two mouths lies a city with the same name. The river is the largest in Iberia and has tides. Later people called it the Baetis. Some believe Tartessus was the ancient name for Carpia, a city of the Iberians.

The river known as the Baetis in Pausanias’ time is now called the Guadalquivir. Schulten suggested that Tartessos may be buried under the wetlands that shift over time. The river’s delta has been blocked by a sandbar stretching from the mouth of the Rio Tinto, near Palos de la Frontera, to Almonte, which is across from Sanlúcar de Barrameda. This area is now protected as the Parque Nacional de Doñana.

In the first century AD, Pliny the Elder incorrectly identified the city of Carteia as Tartessos, as mentioned in Greek writings. Strabo only briefly mentioned this. Carteia is now believed to be El Rocadillo, near San Roque in the Province of Cádiz, far from the Guadalquivir. In the second century AD, Appian wrote that Karpessos (Carpia) was once called Tartessos.

Archaeological discoveries

In 1922, Adolf Schulten's discoveries brought attention to Tartessos, changing how people studied it from using texts to using archaeology. However, debates about where Tartessos' capital might have been located remained unclear. In September 1923, archaeologists found a Phoenician necropolis with human remains and stones covered in unclear symbols. This area may have been used by the Phoenicians for trade because of its rich metal resources.

Later, scholars focused on finding "orientalizing" features in Tartessian culture, which were similar to styles from the eastern Mediterranean. These features were part of a broader "Orientalizing period" seen in the Aegean and Etruria.

In the 1950s, J. M. Luzón first connected Tartessos with modern Huelva, based on earlier discoveries. In 1958, a rich gold treasure was found at El Carambolo, Camas, Seville, and hundreds of artifacts were uncovered in the necropolis at La Joya, Huelva. These findings helped archaeologists combine their work with historical studies to better understand Tartessian culture, which was centered in western Andalusia, Extremadura, and southern Portugal.

In 2015, excavations began at the Turuñuelo archaeological site in Guareña. The site was declared a national heritage site in 2022. In 2023, two detailed stone busts were found there, showing the first known faces of Tartessian goddesses. These sculptures resemble the Lady of Elche from Alicante, dated to the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Fragments of at least three other busts were also found, including one of a warrior with part of a helmet preserved.

Tartessian culture began around 900 BC in southern Spain, forming when Phoenician settlers mixed with local people. Scholars describe it as a "hybrid archaeological culture."

Tartessian people mined tin and silver from streams. Silver became valuable because Assyria used it for tribute. The invention of coins in the 7th century BC increased demand for bronze and silver. By the Late Bronze Age, large-scale silver mining occurred in Huelva Province. Cypriot and Phoenician metalworkers produced 15 million tons of metal waste at Riotinto. Mining and smelting began before Phoenicians and Greeks arrived, who influenced Tartessian culture with an "orientalizing" phase (750–550 BC) before it was replaced by Classic Iberian culture.

"Tartessic" artifacts have been found, and many archaeologists now link the "lost" city of Tartessos to Huelva. Excavations in Huelva uncovered Greek ceramics from the 6th century BC, showing it was an important Tartessian center. Medellín, on the Guadiana River, revealed a significant necropolis.

Tartessian pottery includes Late Bronze Age pattern-burned wares and geometrically decorated "Carambolo" wares from 900 to 600 BC. The "Orientalizing" period brought imports from the eastern Mediterranean. Later, Tartessian culture produced fine bronze and goldwork, including pear-shaped jugs, braziers, incense burners, and belt buckles.

Before colonization, no necropolis sites were found. Homes changed from circular huts to rectangular houses with dry-stone walls starting in the 7th and 6th centuries BC.

At Cástulo (Jaén), a mosaic made of river pebbles from the late 6th century BC is the oldest in Western Europe.

Timeline (10th-5th century BC)

During the Late Bronze Age, Tartessian occupation sites were not highly complex. One common view is that simple farming and daily life activities were the main way people lived. Earlier archaeologists and historians believed that the Tartessians, who used styles and methods from the Punic culture, were adopting more advanced traits from a more developed culture. They also looked for similar examples in the East for early Iron Age items found in Tartessian sites. Later archaeologists focused more on how local systems and traditions changed over time.

New discoveries in the city of Huelva are changing older ideas about these sites. In two nearby areas totaling 2,150 square meters between Las Monjas Square and Mendez Nuñez Street, about 90,000 ceramic pieces were found. These included items made by local people, Phoenicians, and Greeks. Of these, 8,009 pieces could be identified as specific types. The pottery dates back to the 10th to early 8th centuries BC and is older than similar finds in other Phoenician colonies. Along with signs of many activities, these discoveries show that Huelva was an important center for trade and industry that lasted for centuries. Similar finds elsewhere in the city suggest that the area covered about 20 hectares, a large size for a site in the Iberian Peninsula during that time.

Carbon-14 dating by the University of Groningen on bones from cattle found nearby, along with dating from ceramic samples, shows that from the 10th century BC, the area had a long history of crafts and industry. Artifacts include pottery (bowls, plates, vases, amphorae), melting pots, casting tools, weights, finely made wood items, parts of ships, bovid skulls, jewelry like pendants and fibulae, bones, agate, ivory, gold, and silver. This is the only known workshop from that time in the western region.

The presence of both foreign and local materials suggests that the old Huelva harbor was a major place where goods were received, made, and sent out. Studies of written records and the items found, including inscriptions and thousands of Greek ceramics—some made by well-known potters—have led some experts to believe that this area might be the same as the ancient city of Tarshish mentioned in the Bible, the Assyrian stele of Esarhaddon, and the Phoenician Nora Stone. It may also be the same as Tartessos described by Greek writers. This connection suggests that the Tartessus River was the same as the modern Tinto River, and the Ligustine Lake was the area where the Odiel and Tinto rivers meet near the Huelva Peninsula.

Most of these sites were suddenly abandoned around the 5th century BC.

Religion

There is not much information available, but it is thought that the Tartessians, like other Mediterranean people, believed in many gods. They may have worshipped goddesses such as Astarte or Potnia and gods like Baal or Melkart, influenced by the Phoenicians. Places of worship similar to Phoenician designs have been found in Castulo (Linares, Jaén) and near Carmona. Images of Phoenician gods have also been discovered in Cádiz, Huelva, and Sevilla.

Language

The Tartessian language was an ancient language that no longer exists. It was spoken in southern Iberia before the time of the Romans. The oldest known writings from this region, dating back to the 7th and 6th centuries BC, are written in Tartessian. These writings use a special type of writing called the Southwest script. They were discovered in the area where the ancient city of Tartessos was located and in nearby regions. Tartessian texts have been found in parts of Southwestern Spain and Southern Portugal, including areas such as Conii, Cempsi, Sefes, and Celtici in the Algarve and southern Alentejo.

Possible identification as "Tarshish" or "Atlantis"

Since the early 1900s, biblical archaeologists have often linked the place-name Tarshish in the Hebrew Bible to Tartessos, a location in ancient Spain. Some scholars, however, suggest Tarshish might refer to Tarsus in Anatolia or other places as far as India. Both Tarshish and Tartessos are connected to large amounts of valuable minerals, such as pyrite found in the Iberian Pyrite Belt.

In 1922, Adolf Schulten claimed that Tartessos was the western, entirely European source of the Atlantis legend.

In 2011, a team led by Richard Freund reported finding strong evidence that Tartessos was located in Doñana National Park. This conclusion was based on underground and underwater surveys, as well as the interpretation of the archaeological site Cancho Roano as "memorial cities" that resembled Atlantis. Spanish scientists criticized Freund for exaggerating their findings. Juan Villarías-Robles, an anthropologist with the Spanish National Research Council, noted that Freund was not part of the original project and had a separate, controversial theory about King Solomon’s search for ivory and gold in Tartessos. He called Freund’s claims "fanciful."