Celtic art is connected to the people called Celts, who spoke Celtic languages in Europe from ancient times until today. It also includes the art of ancient groups whose language is unknown but who shared similar cultural and artistic styles with Celtic-speaking people.

Celtic art is a term that is hard to define because it covers a long time, many places, and different cultures. Some experts believe that artistic traditions in Europe began during the Bronze Age and earlier Neolithic period. However, most archaeologists use the word "Celtic" to describe the culture of the European Iron Age, starting around 1000 BC, until the Roman Empire conquered much of that area. Art historians usually begin discussing "Celtic art" from the La Tène period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 1st century BC. This time is sometimes called "Early Celtic art," and in Britain, it lasted until about 150 AD. The art of the Early Middle Ages in Britain and Ireland, such as the Book of Kells, is known as "Insular art" in history. This is the most famous part of Celtic art, but it is not the only part. It also includes the Pictish art of Scotland.

Both styles of Celtic art were influenced by non-Celtic cultures, but they often preferred geometric designs over pictures of people or animals. When figurative images appeared, they were usually very stylized. Scenes that tell stories only appeared after outside influences. Common features include energetic circular shapes, triskeles, and spirals. Most of the surviving art is made of precious metals, which may not represent all types of Celtic art. Large stone carvings, like Pictish stones and Insular high crosses, are rare. Some wooden statues, like the Warrior of Hirschlanden, may have been common in the past.

The term "Celtic art" also includes the visual art from the Celtic Revival, which began in the 18th century and continued into modern times. This movement was started by people who wanted to express pride in their Celtic identity and nationalism, mostly in the British Isles. It became popular beyond Celtic countries and is still used today in forms like Celtic cross monuments and tattoos. This revival used designs copied from earlier periods, especially from Insular art. Another influence was the "vegetal" style of late La Tène art, which inspired the Art Nouveau movement.

Celtic art is usually decorative, avoiding straight lines and using symmetry only sometimes. It does not copy nature as much as classical art, and it often includes complex symbols. It has used many styles and borrowed ideas from other cultures, such as knotwork, spirals, key patterns, lettering, animal shapes, plant forms, and human figures. As archaeologist Catherine Johns explained, "Celtic art across many times and places shows a careful balance in patterns. Curved shapes are arranged so that filled areas and empty spaces work together in harmony. Artists used textures and relief carefully, and complex patterns were designed to fit unusual or irregular shapes."

Background

The people known as "Celts" spoke languages that shared a common origin in an ancient Indo-European language called Common Celtic or Proto-Celtic. Scholars once believed this shared language meant the people had a common genetic background in southwest Europe and spread their culture through movement and conquest. Archaeologists found cultural features, such as art styles, that linked these people to earlier groups called the Hallstatt culture and La Tène culture. More recent genetic research shows that different Celtic groups may not share the same ancestry and suggests that the culture spread without large-scale movement of people. It is still unclear and debated how much Celtic language, culture, and genetics overlapped in ancient times.

Celtic art is connected to the people called Celts, who spoke Celtic languages in Europe from ancient times until today. It also includes art from groups whose language is unknown but who share similar cultural and artistic styles with Celtic speakers.

The term "Celt" was used in ancient times to describe the Gauls, a group of people in Europe. The word "Celt" in English became common in 1607. In the late 1600s, scholars like Edward Lhuyd studied the connections between Gaulish and the languages spoken by the Brythonic and Goidelic peoples, leading to the use of "Celt" for people in Britain and Ireland as well. In the 1700s, interest in "primitivism"—a belief that ancient cultures were noble and pure—led to a strong appreciation for Celtic and Druidic traditions. Later, after the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829, efforts to promote Irish identity led to the "Irish revival," which later became known as the "Celtic Revival" in other countries.

Pre-Celtic periods

The earliest ancient culture commonly called Celtic, known as the Hallstatt culture (from "Hallstatt C" onward), dates to the early European Iron Age, around 800 to 450 BC. However, the art from this time and later periods shows a strong connection to earlier art styles in the same regions. This suggests that Celtic culture may have developed through shared traditions among a mostly stable population, rather than through large migrations or invasions, as older theories suggested. Megalithic art, found in many parts of the world, often includes similar symbols such as circles, spirals, and curved shapes. In Europe, the most common remains from this time are large stone monuments, such as those created by the Neolithic Boyne Valley culture in Ireland. These monuments are located near areas that later became centers for Early Medieval Insular art, about 4,000 years later. Other regions, like Brittany, are also places that are still considered Celtic today. Similar patterns appear in jewelry from different periods, such as the gold lunulas and large collars of Bronze Age Ireland and Europe, which resemble the torcs worn by Iron Age Celts. These are all elaborate neck ornaments. Additionally, the trumpet-shaped ends of Bronze Age Irish jewelry share design elements with later Celtic art.

Iron Age; Early Celtic art

During the Iron Age, the rural culture of people living in areas now known as the "Celtic nations" was different from the culture of people in mainland Europe. In mainland Europe, many large and fortified settlements existed, some very large, which the Romans called "oppidum." These societies had wealthy elites who owned expensive items imported from other cultures, some of which were found in graves. Paul Jacobsthal, a German immigrant who worked in Oxford, created important studies on the art of this time, especially his book Early Celtic Art from 1944.

The Halstatt culture produced art with geometric shapes, such as straight lines and rectangles, rather than curves. These designs were intricate and filled all available space, resembling later Celtic styles. Linguists believe the Halstatt culture was created by people who spoke Celtic languages, but art historians often do not describe Halstatt art as "Celtic."

As Halstatt society grew wealthier, it traded with other cultures, even those far away, such as in the Mediterranean and China. A famous example is a large Greek bronze vessel, called a krater, found in the Vix Grave in Burgundy. It was made in Magna Graecia (southern Italy) around 530 BC and later placed in a grave. Another example is a large Greek vessel found in the Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave, decorated with lions, one of which was later modified by a Celtic artist. Art from the Halstatt culture has been found as far as Ireland, mixed with local styles.

Art from this time includes animal and human figures, especially in religious items. "Cult wagons," large wheeled carts with groups of standing figures and a central bowl, were found in graves. These figures are simple but striking. Some stone statues have a "leaf crown," two rounded shapes behind the head, possibly symbolizing divinity. Human heads, often shown in relief on objects, were common. In the La Tène period, faces and bird heads sometimes appeared in abstract or plant-like patterns.

The most detailed stone carvings, including reliefs, were found in southern France, near areas colonized by the Greeks. These may have been part of a religious sanctuary where enemy heads or skulls were placed. These carvings date to the 3rd century BC or earlier.

Few high-quality items from this time have survived, especially compared to items from the Mediterranean. Elite objects, like torcs and swords, were often richly decorated, but everyday items were simpler. Some famous finds, such as a gold collar from Austria, gold shoe plaques from Germany, and the Waterloo Helmet, are unique and lack similar comparisons. Religious themes in art were rare, and the meaning of much decoration on practical items is unclear.

Examples of finds include:
– Late Hallstatt gold collar from Austria, around 550 BC
– Gold shoe plaques from the Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave, Germany, around 530 BC
– Pottery from Heuneburg, Germany
– The imported Greek Vix Krater, found in the Vix Grave, France
– Hallstatt culture ceramic bowl from a grave in Alburg-Hochwegfeld, Germany
– Decorated bent sword from a noble's grave in Oss, Netherlands, around 826–600 BC
– Axehead with a decorative figure, 800–600 BC
– Pottery decorated with incisions and paint, around 600 BC

La Tène style

About 500 BC, the La Tène style, named after a place in Switzerland, appeared suddenly. This change happened around the same time as major changes in society, which caused important centers of activity to shift toward the northwest. The area with the most valuable finds was in northern France and western Germany. Over the next three centuries, this style spread widely, reaching places like Ireland, Italy, and modern Hungary. In some areas, the Celts were known for being aggressive warriors and invaders, but in others, the spread of their culture may have involved only small groups of people or no movement at all. The early La Tène style used designs from other cultures, such as Scythian, Greek, and Etruscan art, and combined them into something new. The Persian Empire’s control of Thrace and Macedonia around 500 BC may have had some influence, but its importance is unclear. The La Tène style is described as "a highly stylized art with flowing curves, based mainly on plant shapes like leafy patterns, vines, and spirals, along with shapes like lyres and trumpets."

The most well-preserved objects, often made of materials that last a long time, do not prove the stereotype of the Celts being focused only on feasting, fighting, and showing off. Society was led by a warrior class, and many of the most impressive finds were items related to drinking, such as containers, or jewelry. However, the rich burials typical of the earlier Hallstatt period became less common, partly because people began cremating the dead instead of burying them.

A torc, a type of metal necklace, was an important symbol of status and was worn by many people. The wealth and rank of the wearer were likely shown by the type of metal used. Bracelets and armlets were also common. Few human figures are shown in La Tène art, and wooden items rarely survived. However, some water sites have produced many small carved figures, such as body parts or full human shapes, which are believed to have been offerings to gods, representing the illnesses of the people who made them. The largest collection, found at Source-de-la-Roche in France, had over 10,000 pieces, now stored in Clermont-Ferrand.

The La Tène style has several phases, named in different ways, such as numbered (De Navarro) or lettered series. While experts agree on how to divide these phases, the names used vary, and the exact order of the phases is now uncertain. In one system, the "early" or "strict" phase (De Navarro I) shows recognizable foreign designs. This is followed by the "vegetal" phase (De Navarro II), where designs are mostly made of flowing, twisting plant shapes.

After about 300 BC, the style (De Navarro III) splits into two types: the "plastic" style, with raised decorations, and the "sword" style, found mainly on sword sheaths. One scholar, Vincent Megaw, identified a "Disney style" within the plastic style, featuring cartoon-like animal heads, and a period called "Oppida art" from around 125 to 50 BC. De Navarro also separated the art of the British Isles (Style IV) from the rest, up to about 100 BC, followed by Style V. The unique styles of the British Isles are widely recognized.

The art of the richest Celts before the Romans arrived often included elements from Roman, Greek, and other foreign styles. For example, a torc from the Vix Grave has large ball-shaped ends, but the ring ends are shaped like lion paws, and tiny winged horses are carved on the outside. This design is impressive but less harmonious than a later British torc from the Snettisham Hoard, which combined elements more smoothly. The Gundestrup cauldron, the largest surviving piece of European Iron Age silver, is debated in origin. Though it has clear Celtic symbols, it may have been made by Thracians and was found in Denmark. The Agris Helmet, decorated with gold leaf over bronze, clearly shows Mediterranean influences.

By the 3rd century BC, the Celts began making coins, copying Greek and Roman designs at first, but later adding their own style. For example, classical heads on coins had exaggerated, wavy hair, and horses were shown with curved shapes.

A unique type of mirror found in southern Britain had a handle and intricate decoration on the back of a bronze plate. The front was polished to act as a mirror. Each of the more than 50 mirrors found had a unique design, but their circular shape likely influenced the flowing, curvilinear patterns used in their decoration.

Although Ireland was important for later Celtic art, few La Tène-style artifacts have been found there. Some Hallstatt-style items, like scabbard parts, appeared in Ireland, but La Tène-style art didn’t appear until between 350 and 150 BC, mostly in Northern Ireland, such as engraved scabbard plates. After that, Irish art continued to be influenced by outside cultures, even though Ireland was not part of the Roman Empire. It is unclear whether some famous artifacts from this time were made in Ireland or elsewhere, like Germany or Egypt.

In Scotland and western Britain, where the Romans and later Anglo-Saxons had less influence, La Tène-style art remained in use. It later became part of the new Insular style, which developed for Christian communities. In northern England and Scotland, many finds from this time are after the Roman invasion of the south. However, few La T

Early Middle Ages

Celtic art in the Middle Ages was created by people in Ireland and parts of Britain from the 5th century until the 12th century. This period lasted about 700 years. The style of art spread across Northern Europe through missionary efforts from Ireland and Scotland.

In Ireland, Celtic traditions continued even before and during the Roman rule in Britain, which never reached the island. However, very few Irish objects from the Late Roman period show the La Tène style, which was common in Europe. From the 5th to 7th centuries, art in Ireland blended elements of the late Iron Age La Tène style with influences from Roman and Romano-British cultures. When Christianity arrived, Irish art was shaped by both Mediterranean and Germanic traditions, especially through contact with the Anglo-Saxons. This mix of styles became known as the Insular or Hiberno-Saxon style, which was most popular in the 8th and early 9th centuries. Viking attacks later disrupted monastic life. Later, Scandinavian influences appeared through the Vikings and mixed Norse-Gael communities. Celtic art ended with the Norman invasion between 1169 and 1170, when European Romanesque art became common.

Between the 7th and 9th centuries, Irish missionaries traveled to Northumbria in Britain and brought the tradition of decorating manuscripts with intricate designs. These techniques combined with Anglo-Saxon metalwork skills in Northumbrian monasteries. These skills may have spread back to Scotland and Ireland, influencing art in other parts of England. Notable metalwork pieces include the Tara Brooch, the Ardagh Chalice, and the Derrynaflan Chalice. New techniques used were filigree and chip carving, and new designs included interlace patterns and animal shapes. The Book of Durrow is the earliest complete illuminated Gospel Book in the Insular style. By about 700, the Hiberno-Saxon style was fully developed, as seen in the Lindisfarne Gospels, which feature detailed colored pages. The art form reached its peak in the late 8th century with the Book of Kells, the most detailed Insular manuscript. These styles influenced art in Europe, including Carolingian, Romanesque, and Gothic styles, for the rest of the Middle Ages.

In the 9th and 11th centuries, plain silver became a popular material in Anglo-Saxon England, likely because of increased silver circulation due to Viking trade and raids. During this time, many silver brooches were made in Ireland. Around the same time, manuscript production declined, though this may have started before Viking arrivals. Stone sculptures, such as "high crosses" with carved biblical scenes, became more common. These reached their peak in the early 10th century, with examples like Muiredach's Cross at Monasterboice and the Ahenny High Cross.

Viking influence on Irish art became visible in the late 11th century, when Irish metalwork began to resemble Scandinavian styles like Ringerike and Urnes. Examples include the Cross of Cong and the Shrine of Manchan. These influences were found not only in Dublin but also in rural areas, such as the Dorty Cross at Kilfenora and crosses at the Rock of Cashel.

Some Insular manuscripts, like the 8th-century Lichfield Gospels and Hereford Gospels, may have been made in Wales. The 11th-century Ricemarch Psalter, also from Wales, shows Viking influence.

Art from historic Dumnonia, which includes modern-day Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, and Brittany, is less well known because these areas were later incorporated into England and France. However, archaeological findings at places like Cadbury Castle, Tintagel, and Ipplepen suggest a highly developed society with connections to the Byzantine Mediterranean, Ireland, and Wales. Stones such as King Doniert's Stone, the Drustanus stone, and the Artognou stone show evidence of a diverse population that spoke and wrote in Brittonic and Latin, with some knowledge of Ogham script. Few Breton and Cornish manuscripts remain, but the Bodmin manumissions show a regional version of the Insular style.

From the 5th to the mid-9th centuries, Pictish art is mainly known through stone carvings and a few high-quality metal objects, with no known illuminated manuscripts. The Picts lived in modern Scotland, near areas influenced by Irish culture, such as Iona, and the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. After converting to Christianity, Insular styles greatly influenced Pictish art, especially interlace patterns in metalwork and stones.

The Whitecleuch Chain, a heavy silver piece with Pictish symbols on its ends, is similar to a torc. These symbols also appear on plaques from the Norrie's Law hoard, which are considered early examples. The St Ninian's Isle Treasure, including silver brooches and bowls, is thought to be mostly Pictish in origin, dating to about 800 AD.

Pictish stones are divided into three classes by scholars. Class I stones are unshaped standing stones with symbols, animals, and daily objects like combs and mirrors. These symbols often appear in pairs, sometimes with a mirror or comb symbol below, possibly representing a woman. These stones are found in northeast Scotland, with examples like the Dunnichen and Aberlemno stones.

Class II stones are shaped cross-slabs with detailed carvings in the Insular style. They feature crosses decorated with interlace and key-pattern designs, and the other side shows Pictish symbols, human figures, animals, and scenes like hunting. Examples include stones from Dunfallandy and Meigle.

Class III stones follow the Pictish style but lack symbols. Most are cross-slabs, though some are recumbent stones with sockets for crosses.

Celtic revival

The renewed interest in Celtic visual art began later than the renewed interest in Celtic literature. By the 1840s, reproductions of Celtic brooches and other metalwork became popular, starting in Dublin and later spreading to Edinburgh, London, and other countries. Interest grew after the discovery of the Tara Brooch in 1850. The brooch was displayed in London and Paris for many years. In the late 1800s, large Celtic crosses were reintroduced for graves and memorials. This practice became a lasting part of the revival and spread beyond areas with Celtic heritage. Interlace, a decorative pattern, is often seen on these crosses and was later used in architecture, especially in America around 1900 by architects like Louis Sullivan. It also appeared in stained glass and wall stenciling by Thomas A. O'Shaughnessy, both based in Chicago. The "plastic style" of early Celtic art influenced the Art Nouveau decorative style, particularly in the work of designer Archibald Knox, who was from the Isle of Man and worked for Liberty & Co.

The Arts and Crafts Movement in Ireland adopted the Celtic style early but began to move away from it in the 1920s. Thomas Bodkin, the governor of the National Gallery of Ireland, wrote in 1921 that global art had become more diverse and less tied to specific traditions. George Atkinson, who wrote the foreword for an exhibition catalog, noted that the society no longer supported overemphasizing Celtic designs at the expense of good art. The Celtic style had been used to represent Irish identity but fell out of favor as new artistic trends emerged.

Interlace, often considered a "Celtic" design, is still used today in many forms of art, especially in Celtic countries like Ireland. It appears in tattoos and in fantasy works set in medieval times. The animated film The Secret of Kells (2009) features designs inspired by the Book of Kells.

A new Celtic Revival, sometimes called the Celtic Renaissance, began in the 1980s and continues today. By the 1990s, more artists, craftsmen, and designers focused on Celtic jewelry and crafts. This movement is global, with participants from many countries.

In 2017, June 9 was named International Day of Celtic Art by contemporary artists and enthusiasts. The day includes events like exhibits, workshops, and gatherings. The first conference for this day was held in Andover, New York, from June 6 to 9, 2019, with attendees from Scotland, Ireland, the United States, and Canada. The second conference took place in Downpatrick, Northern Ireland, from June 8 to 11, 2023. These events will continue every two years.

Celtic art types and terms

• Hanging bowl. These were made by Celtic craftsmen during the Anglo-Saxon conquests of England. They were inspired by Roman designs and usually made of copper alloy with 3 or 4 loops on the top edge, allowing them to be hung from roof beams or tripods. Their main artistic feature is the round decorated plaques, often with enamel, along their rims. Some of the finest examples are found in the Sutton Hoo hoard (625), which are enamelled. The knowledge of making these bowls spread to Scotland and Ireland by the 8th century. However, while their styles reflect Romano-British traditions, it is now uncertain if they were made in Ireland. Fragments from the 7th-century Benty Grange hanging bowl show typical examples of such items.

• Carpet page. A decorated page in an illuminated manuscript, fully covered with intricate patterns. In Hiberno-Saxon tradition, this was a common feature in Gospel books, with one such page introduced before each Gospel. These pages often used geometric or interwoven designs, framing a central cross. The earliest known example is the 7th-century Bobbio Orosius.

• High cross. A tall stone cross, usually shaped like a Celtic cross. These crosses often have abstract designs or carved figures, especially scenes of crucifixions, though some include complex multi-image carvings. They are most common in Ireland but also found in Great Britain and near continental mission centers.

• Pictish stone. A rectangular stone slab with a cross carved in relief on one side, along with other images and shapes. These stones are divided into three classes based on the time they were made.

• Insular art or the Hiberno-Saxon style (6th to 9th centuries). This style combined pre-Christian Celtic and Anglo-Saxon metalworking traditions, used in religious manuscripts, sculptures, and church metalwork. It also included influences from post-classical Europe and later Viking designs. The style reached its peak when Irish missionaries traveled to Northumbria in the 7th and 8th centuries, creating some of the most remarkable Celtic art of the Middle Ages in manuscripts, metalwork, and sculpture.

• Celtic calendar. The oldest known Celtic calendar is the broken Gaulish Coligny calendar, dating to the 1st century BC or AD.