The Lusitanian Wars, known as Pyrinos Polemos ("the Fiery War") in Greek, were battles fought by the Lusitanian tribes of Hispania Ulterior against the Roman Republic's soldiers from 155 to 139 BC. The Lusitanians fought back in 155 BC and again in 146 BC, but the Romans eventually ended the fighting. These wars played a key role in bringing the area that would later become Portugal into the Roman and Latin-speaking world.

Historical context

The country north of the Tagus River, called Lusitania, was the largest and most powerful nation in Hispania. The Romans fought many wars against Lusitania for a long time.

— Strabo, Book III, Chapter 3, Section 3

During the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic defeated Carthage and its colonies along the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula. This event was the first time the Roman Republic entered the peninsula. It may also have been the first time Lusitanians and Romans fought each other, as some Lusitanian soldiers worked for Carthage during the Punic Wars.

In 194 BC, the Romans began their first attacks in Lusitanian territory. By 179 BC, the Romans had mostly controlled most tribes in the region and made a peace agreement with the Lusitanians.

From Punicus to the Peace Treaty of Atilius (155 BC – 152 BC)

The Lusitanian War began in 155 BCE when Punicus attacked lands controlled by Roman people. During this attack, the Lusitanians killed 6,000 Romans, including a leader named Terentius Varro. After this victory, the Lusitanians joined forces with the Vettones. Together, they attacked the Blastophoenicians, a Phoenician settlement under Roman control. Punicus was killed during this battle, and Caesarus became the new leader.

Rome sent Mummius to fight Caesarus. At first, Caesarus was defeated, but while fleeing, he turned the battle around and killed 9,000 Romans. Mummius then used his remaining 5,000 soldiers to surprise attack the Lusitanians, killing many of them.

On the other side of the Tagus River, the Lusitanians, led by Caucenus, invaded the Cunei, a group under Roman control, and captured the city of Conistorgis. Some Lusitanians later attacked North Africa, surrounding the city of Ocile. Mummius followed them to Africa, defeated the rebels, and ended the siege of Ocile. After this victory, Mummius returned to Rome and was honored with a triumph.

Mummius was replaced by Marcus Atilius, who fought the Lusitanians and captured their largest city, Oxthracae. This frightened nearby tribes, including the Vettones, who then surrendered to Rome.

Second Lusitanian Raid and the Treachery of Galba (152 BC – 150 BC)

In the winter of 152 BC, the Lusitanians rebelled again and attacked Roman people living in their area. Servius Galba, who took over from Atilius, hurried to help the Romans. After a first battle where Galba won, he was later defeated when he tried to chase the Lusitanians who were running away. Around 7,000 Roman soldiers were killed, and Galba had to seek safety in a town called Carmone. Galba gathered his troops again and spent the winter in a place named Conistorgis. At the same time, Lucullus was spending the winter in Turditania. Lucullus’s soldiers found the Lusitanians, attacked them, and killed 4,000 people. Then, Lucullus crossed the water near Gades, killed another 1,500 Lusitanians, and marched into Lusitania. Galba joined Lucullus in the attack on Lusitania.

The invasion by Lucullus and Galba made the Lusitanians send envoys to Galba to renew a peace agreement they had made with Atilius in 152 BC. Galba pretended to agree to a truce and promised the Lusitanians land that was good for farming. The Lusitanians, believing the envoys’ message, gathered at a location Galba had chosen and split into three groups in an open field. Galba approached each group one by one, told them to give up their weapons, and killed many of them. Viriathus was one of the few Lusitanians who managed to escape.

Third Lusitanian Raid and the Feats of Viriathus (148 BC – 140 BC)

In 148 BC, the Lusitanians gathered a group of 10,000 people and attacked the region of Turdetania. Gaius Vetilius was sent to respond to the attack. After gathering an army of the same size as the Lusitanians, Vetilius defeated the Lusitanians, who then asked for peace. While peace talks were being made, Viriathus reminded his fellow Lusitanians about the betrayal by the Romans, which he had seen firsthand with Galba. The Lusitanians chose Viriathus as their leader and planned an escape: they would act as if preparing for battle, then scatter in all directions, and later reunite in a city called Tribola. When Vetilius saw the Lusitanian forces fleeing, he attacked Viriathus directly. However, Viriathus and 1,000 of his strongest fighters held off Vetilius for two days while the rest of the group regrouped safely. Viriathus then avoided the Romans and rejoined his army. The success of Viriathus’ actions encouraged nearby Celtic tribes, such as the Gallaecians, to support his efforts.

Viriathus became famous in the Roman world as a fighter who used clever tactics. As Theodor Mommsen wrote, "It seemed as if, in that thoroughly prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared." In 148 BC, Vetilius followed Viriathus into Tribola. Viriathus’ forces attacked the Romans. About 6,000 Romans escaped to Carpessus with their leader, while the remaining 4,000 of the original group were either killed or captured. Vetilius was killed during the attack because he was considered of little value as a slave (he was reportedly old and heavy). The Roman leader asked for help from allied Celtic tribes, the Belli and the Titii. However, the 5,000 soldiers from these tribes were killed in battles against the Lusitanians.

In 146 BC, Viriathus attacked the Roman-controlled Iberians in Carpetania until Gaius Plautius Hypsaeus arrived with 10,000 soldiers on foot and 1,300 on horse. Plautius was defeated by Viriathus, who then continued to attack Hispania Ulterior without stopping.

In 145 BC, the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus was sent to fight the Lusitanians. After the wars with Carthage and Greece ended, Maximus gathered a large force: 15,000 soldiers on foot and 2,000 on horse. His forces assembled in Urso and often fought small battles with the Lusitanians, but no major battles occurred.

In 144 BC, Maximus attacked Viriathus and forced him to flee, capturing two of his cities afterward. Maximus chased Viriathus to a place called Baecor, killing many of his men but failing to capture Viriathus. Maximus spent the winter in Córdoba and then returned to Rome. He was replaced by Quintus Pompeius Aulus.

In 143 BC, Viriathus convinced several other Celtic tribes (the Arevaci, Titii, and Belli) to resist the Romans, leading to the Numantine War. Later, Viriathus fought against Quintus. He took shelter on Venus Mountain but later returned to battle, killing 1,000 of Quintus’ soldiers. Viriathus drove out the Roman garrison at Ittuca and attacked the Iberian Bastetani. Quintus spent the winter in Córdoba during autumn and sent Caius Marcius, a Hispanic man from Italica, to fight Viriathus.

In 142 BC, Fabius Maximus Servilianus replaced Quintus, bringing two new legions and more allies, totaling 18,000 soldiers on foot and 1,600 on horse. Maximus was supported by 300 horsemen and ten elephants from Africa. Maximus defeated Viriathus, but Viriathus still caused 3,000 Roman deaths and forced the Romans to retreat to their camp. The Romans were saved by nighttime and initially defended their camp, but repeated attacks by Viriathus pushed them back to Itucca. Viriathus returned to Lusitania, while Maximus, instead of following him, attacked five towns in Baeturia controlled by Lusitanian allies. He then marched against the Cunei and later into Lusitania.

While moving against Viriathus, Maximus was attacked by an army of 10,000 led by Curius and Apuleius. Curius was killed in battle, and Maximus captured the Lusitanian cities of Escadia, Gemella, and Obolcola. Maximus captured about 10,000 men, beheaded 500, and sold the rest as slaves. While following Viriathus, Maximus’ army rested in Erisana. Viriathus infiltrated the town and, after defeating Maximus’ forces, asked for an end to the war.

Caepius, death of Viriathus and the end of the Lusitanian War

In 140 BC, Gnaeus Servilius Caepio took over from Maximus and wrote to Rome, expressing complaints about the treaty made with Viriathus, stating it was not respectful to the Roman people. The Senate first allowed Caepio to fight Viriathus in secret before deciding to end the treaty and declare war on Viriathus. Caepio captured the town of Arsa and won a battle against Viriathus, who fled to Carpetania. Although Viriathus escaped, Caepio attacked the Vettones and Gallaeci, destroying their farmland.

Later, Viriathus sent his closest allies, Audax, Ditalcus, and Minurus, to negotiate peace with Caepio. Caepio offered them money to kill Viriathus. Viriathus did not sleep much and always wore armor, allowing his friends to enter his tent at any time so he could be called to battle quickly. Using this opportunity, his friends entered his tent and killed him while he slept by cutting his throat. Viriathus was found dead the next morning, long after the killers had escaped. Unable to find his killers, the Lusitanians held a large funeral for Viriathus. They dressed him in special clothes, burned him on a pile of wood, and held parades, gladiator fights, and songs. A well-known story says the Roman general Caepio killed the traitors, stating, "Rome does not reward traitors."

Tautalus was chosen to lead the Lusitanians after Viriathus. The Lusitanians' attempt to raid Saguntum failed. When they crossed the Baetis River on their way back, they were defeated by Caepio and became subjects of Rome. This event marked the end of the Lusitanian War.

Aftermath

After the Lusitanian Wars ended, there was a time of peace in Lusitania. Between 80 and 72 BC, the Lusitanians rebelled against Rome again in the Sertorian War. They chose Quintus Sertorius, an exiled former general, to lead their rebellion.

The Lusitanian War, especially the actions of Viriathus, became an important symbol of Portuguese identity and independence (see Lusitanic).