The Iberian language was spoken by the Iberians, an ancient group of people in western Europe. Greek and Roman records describe them as living in the eastern and southeastern parts of the Iberian Peninsula before about AD 375. Evidence shows that their culture existed from around 700 BC to 100 BC.

The Iberian language, like most other Paleohispanic languages except Basque, was no longer spoken by the 1st to 2nd centuries AD. It was gradually replaced by Latin after the Romans conquered the Iberian Peninsula.

Little is known about the Iberian language. While the writing systems used to record it have been partially understood, the language itself remains mostly a mystery. Some researchers have noticed similarities between Iberian and Basque, especially in how numbers are expressed. However, other languages in the area, such as Punic (a Semitic language) and Indo-European languages like Hispano-Celtic, Lusitanian, Greek, and Latin, were not related to Iberian. Latin later became the foundation for modern Romance languages spoken in the region today.

Geographic distribution

Iberian inscriptions are located along the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, extending as far as the Hérault River in southern France. Important written records have been discovered in Ensérune, a site between Narbonne and Béziers in France, within a settlement that shows a mix of Iberian and Celtic features. The southernmost area associated with Iberian culture is Porcuna in Jaén, Spain, where impressive carvings of Iberian riders have been uncovered. Further inland, the exact locations where Iberian language inscriptions were found are not clearly known. It appears that the culture spread toward the interior through the Ebro River (called Iberus in Latin) as far as Salduie, but no farther.

Among the pre-Roman groups living on the Iberian Peninsula, the following may have spoken the Iberian language: Ausetani (northeastern Catalonia), Ilergetes (Lleida and Huesca up to the Pyrenees), Indigetes (coast of Girona), Laietani (Barcelona), Cessetani (Tarragona), Ilercavones (Murcia and Levante up to Tarragona), Edetani (Valencia, Castellón, and Teruel), Contestani (Valencia, Alicante, Cartagena, and Albacete), Bastetani (Granada, Almería, and Murcia), and Oretani (Jaén, Ciudad Real, Albacete, and Cuenca). The Turduli and Turdetani are thought to have spoken a language related to Tartessian.

Some scholars, like Velaza (2006), suggest that Iberian was the language of the original people living in these regions. Others, such as De Hoz (1993), believe Iberian may have been a common language used by different groups.

History

The origin of the Iberian language is not known. Although the language stopped being written in the 1st century AD, it may have continued to be used in some areas until the Visigothic period (around 500s to 700s), according to Ramón Menéndez Pidal.

There are several theories about where the Iberian language began. One theory, called the Catalan theory, suggests the language originated in northern Catalonia, where the earliest Iberian writings were found (around 600 BC in Ullastret). The spread of the language to other areas may have been caused by large population movements that happened before the first written records, between the 11th and 10th centuries BC. This is because Iberian texts appear similar throughout, and if the language were much older, different dialects would likely be visible. Some elements in the language, such as Iberian names of people found in inscriptions, are difficult to understand, but they have not been shown to be important enough to change the theory.

Writing

The oldest Iberian inscriptions are from the 6th century BC or possibly the 5th century BC. The most recent ones are from the end of the 1st century BC or the start of the 1st century AD. Over 2,000 Iberian inscriptions are known today. Most are short messages on pottery, often containing personal names, which are usually seen as markers of ownership. Many coins made by Iberian groups during the Roman Republic have writing in the Iberian language. The longest Iberian texts were written on lead plaques. The longest example is from Yátova (Valencia) and has more than 600 symbols.

Three different writing systems have been found for the Iberian language:

• Northeastern Iberian script: Two versions exist. The Dual variant was used from the 4th to 3rd century BC. The Non-dual variant was used from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century BC.
• Southeastern Iberian script
• Greco-Iberian alphabet: Most of the lead inscriptions from La Serreta are written in this version.

The northeastern Iberian script is often called simply the Iberian script because it was used most frequently (95% of surviving texts). These inscriptions are mostly found in the northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, especially along the coast from Languedoc-Roussillon to Alicante, and also in the Ebro valley. This script is mostly understood.

All paleohispanic scripts, except the Greco-Iberian alphabet, share a common feature: they use symbols that represent syllables for certain consonants and symbols that represent single sounds for other consonants and vowels. These systems are not fully alphabets or syllabaries but are called "mixed" scripts, often described as semi-syllabaries. Researchers disagree about their origins. Some believe they are linked only to the Phoenician alphabet, while others think the Greek alphabet influenced them.

The southeastern Iberian script is also a semi-syllabary. It is more similar to the Tartessian script than to the northeastern Iberian script. These inscriptions are mainly found in the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, including eastern Andalusia, Murcia, Albacete, Alicante, and Valencia. This script is not fully understood.

The Greco-Iberian alphabet is based on an Ionic version of the Greek alphabet, adapted to fit the Iberian language. Inscriptions using this alphabet are mostly found in Alicante and Murcia.

Phonology

Very little is known for certain about the Iberian language. Research on the language has moved past the early stage of writing down and collecting information, and now focuses on identifying grammar rules in the texts. The ideas currently being studied are not proven and may stay unconfirmed unless a bilingual text is found, which could help experts verify their theories.

Iberian appears to have five vowels, usually written as a, e, i, o, and u. Other languages in the region, such as Basque and modern Spanish, also use similar vowel systems. While five-vowel systems are common worldwide, some experts suggest this might indicate a Sprachbund, or shared linguistic features, among ancient languages on the Iberian Peninsula.

Unrounded vowels (a, i, e) appear more often than rounded vowels (u, o). Some evidence suggests there may have been a nasal vowel (ḿ), but this is likely an allophone, a variation of another sound. Greek writings suggest Iberian did not use vowel length distinctions. If correct, Iberian used the long ē (Greek: ἦτα, romanized: êta) instead of the short epsilon (Greek: ἒ ψιλόν, romanized: è psilón).

It seems that the second part of diphthongs was always a closed vowel, as seen in examples like ai (śaitabi), ei (neitin), and au (lauŕ). Untermann noted that the diphthong ui only appeared in the first cluster of sounds.

Iberian may have had semivowels /j/ (in words like aiun or iunstir) and /w/ (only in borrowed words like diuiś from Gaulish). The lack of /w/ in native words raises questions about whether semivowels existed in Iberian beyond foreign influences and diphthongs.

• Rhotics: Two rhotic sounds, r and ŕ, exist. Experts disagree on their exact phonetic values. Correa (1994) suggested ŕ was an alveolar flap /ɾ/ and r was a "compound vibrant," or trill /r/. Later, Rodríguez Ramos (2004) proposed ŕ was an alveolar flap /ɾ/ and r was a retroflex flap /ɽ/, aligning with Ballester (2001), who thought r represented a uvular fricative /ʁ/. Ballester (2005) later revised this, stating r was an alveolar flap /ɾ/ and ŕ was an alveolar trill /r/. Neither r nor ŕ appears at the start of words, a pattern also seen in Basque.

• Sibilants: Two sibilants, s and ś, exist. Their distinction is unclear, with multiple theories. Ballester (2001) theorized s was an alveolar /s/ and ś was an alveolo-palatal /ɕ/. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) suggested ś was alveolar /s/ and s was an affricate, either dental/alveolar /t͡s/ or palatal /t͡ʃ/ (like English "ch"). This aligns with Correa’s observations of Gallic name adaptations in Iberian texts.

• Laterals: The lateral l is typically interpreted as /l/. It rarely appears at the end of words and may sometimes alternate with ŕ, as in aŕika l-er ~ aŕika ŕ-bi.

• Nasals: The letter n was likely an alveolar /n/. The letter m’s role is debated. It rarely starts words. Velaza (1996) proposed m was an allophone of medial n, as in iumstir/iunstir. Correa (1999) suggested it might be a geminate or strong nasal. Ballester (2001) considered it a labialized nasal in Iberian and Celtiberian. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) thought it nasalized the preceding vowel. The sign ḿ is controversial. Some believe it represents a nasal, but its exact sound is unclear. Some linguists suggest it corresponds to [na], based on Greek similarities, such as -ḿi/-nai and -ḿbar-/-nabar-. However, the Latin transcription of ḿbar-beleś as VMARBELES contradicts this. Correa (1999) proposed it was a labialized nasal. It is uncertain whether ḿ was always pronounced the same way. Rodríguez Ramos (2004) considered it a nasalized vowel produced by gradual nasalization.

• Plosives: There are five plosives.

Morphology

There are many known affixes, which are often used in last names. In the Iberian language, these affixes appear after the word they are attached to and are more built by adding parts together than by changing the meaning when combined.

The most well-known examples include the following:

Lexicon

Some words from the Iberian language may mean something similar to other languages, based on evidence from ancient writings. Examples include:

• "aŕe" may be similar to the Latin phrase "hic est situs" ("here he is") because of a bilingual inscription from Tarragona C.18.6.
• "eban" and "ebanen" may be similar to the Latin word "coeravit" ("he cared [to be done]") because of a bilingual inscription from Sagunto F.11.8.
• "iltiŕ" and "iltun" are likely Iberian words for city names, meaning "city" or "town."
• "ekiar" is a verb or verbal noun meaning "to do" or "to make," similar to the Basque verb "egin." An example is "Likine-te ekiar Usekerte-ku," which may mean "made by Likinos of Osicerda."
• "seltar" and "siltar" may mean "tomb," as seen on tombstones.
• "śalir" may mean "money" or "coin," based on its use on coins and lead plaques with numbers and quantities.

In 2020, Villamor created a dictionary with about 500 Iberian words. Some examples include:

• "bilos" meaning "people" or "tribe," similar to the Basque word "bildu" ("to gather").
• "kas" meaning "knowledge" or "experience," possibly related to the Basque word "ikasi" ("to learn" or "to study").
• "lagun" meaning "friend" or "companion," similar to the Basque word "lagun."
• "beri" meaning "new," "recent," or "first-time," similar to the Basque word "berri" or the Aquitanian word "*berri" ("new").
• "luŕa" meaning "land" or "ground," likely connected to the Basque word "lur" ("earth" or "soil").
• "an" meaning "big" or "great," possibly related to the Basque word "handi" ("big" or "large").

Villamor also included translations of Iberian words from original texts. Examples are:

• "baŕkarbaŕkaike" → "Outstanding authority, the result of outstanding self-control."
• "koŕasiŕen. neŕseoŕtinika. kaisuŕanaŕika." → "For satiating us with favors. For the arrival of a fertile husband. For the arrival of steady mild rains."
• "tautintibaś.sani.giŕśdo.uŕketigeś" → "Offering in recognition of the total victory over the enemy."

The Latin Inscription of the plaque from Ascoli, which lists Iberian cavalry soldiers in the Roman army (the Turma Salluitana), helped researchers understand Iberian names. Iberian names are usually made of two parts, each with two syllables, written together. For example, "iltiŕ" appears in names like "iltiŕaŕker," "iltiŕbaś," and "iltiŕtikeŕ." This discovery allowed researchers to identify names in texts with more confidence. However, different scholars have slightly different lists of name components. The basic list comes from Untermann (1990), updated by Rodríguez Ramos (2002b), with additional information from Faria (2007a and 2007b).

Some proposed components of Iberian names include: abaŕ, aibe, aile, ain, aitu, aiun, aker, albe, aloŕ, an, anaŕ, aŕbi, aŕki, aŕs, asai, aster, ata, atin, atun, aunin, auŕ, austin, baiser, balaŕ, balke, bartaś, baś, bastok, bekon, belauŕ, beleś, bels, bene, beŕ, beri, beŕon, betan, betin, bikir, bilos, bin, bir, bitu, biuŕ, bolai, boŕ, boś, boton, ekes, ekaŕ, eler, ena, esto, eten, eter, iar, iaun, ibeś, ibeis, ike, ikoŕ, iltiŕ, iltur, inte, iskeŕ, istan, iunstir, iur, kaisur, kakeŕ, kaltuŕ, kani, kaŕes, kaŕko, katu, keŕe, kibaś, kine, kitaŕ, kon, koŕo, koŕś, kuleś, kurtar, lako, lauŕ, leis, lor, lusban, nalbe, neitin, neŕse, nes, niś, nios, oŕtin, sakaŕ, sakin, saltu, śani, śar, seken, selki, sike, sili, sine, sir, situ, soket, sor, sosin, suise, taker, talsku, tan, tanek, taneś, taŕ, tarban, taŕtin, taś, tautin, teita, tekeŕ, tibaś, tikeŕ, tikirs, tikis, tileis, tolor, tuitui, tumar, tuŕś, turkir, tortin, ulti, unin, uŕke, ustain, ḿbaŕ, nḿkei.

In some cases, Iberian names have only one element, such as "BELES," "AGER-DO," and "BIVR-NO" on the Ascoli plaque, or "neitin" in Ullastret and "lauŕ-to," "bartas-ko," or "śani-ko" in other texts. Rarely, linking elements like "-i-," "-ke-," or "-ta-" are used. In very few cases, elements like "is-" or "o-" appear before a name (e.g., "is-betartiker," "o-tikiŕtekeŕ," "O-ASAI").

Patterns of variation are common in Iberian names, such as "eter/eten/ete" and "iltur/iltun/iltu," or "kere/keres" and "lako/lakos." Some Iberian name elements resemble words in Aquitanian or Basque, a connection some linguists call an "onomastic pool." However, most Iberian words still have unclear meanings. Some scholars believe these languages may have shared a historical language group, but Basque has not helped translate

External relations

Whether Iberian and Basque are part of the same language family is still debated. Many experts believe Iberian and Aquitanian, an earlier form of Basque, might be related. However, there is not enough evidence to prove if they belong to the same family or if their similarities come from borrowing words. Similar words or names could be due to borrowing, while similar sounds might be from shared geography or culture (like how Basque and Old Spanish share some features despite being different families). More research on Iberian is needed to answer this question.

Historically, early evidence suggesting a link between Basque and Iberian included:

• Suffixes like -sken / -ken on Iberian coins, which were compared to Basque plural (-k) and genitive (-en) endings.
• Iberian town names with "ili" (like "iliberri"), similar to Basque "hiri" (town) and "berri" (new).

Other possible links, like "eban," "ars," "-ka," and "-te," are still unclear. Today, arguments for a connection include:

• Phonetics: Proto-Basque and Iberian both lack the /m/ sound, which some see as important.
• Names: Aquitanian-Latin inscriptions have names similar to Basque and Iberian, but Iberian influence might explain this instead of a family link.
• Words: Iberian "iltiŕ" and "iltur" mean "city," similar to Basque "hiri." Iberian genitive endings like "-en" match Basque "-en," though this is debated.
• Expressions: Iberian phrases like "aŕe take" (possibly meaning "here is") resemble Basque "hara dago" ("there is").
• Verbs: Iberian "ekiar" (possibly "he made") and Basque "egin" ("make") share roots.
• Words: Iberian "śalir" (money/coin) and Basque "sari" (value/payment) may be related.

In 2020, Villamor claimed that 500 Iberian words, many similar to Basque, show a close relationship. Examples include:

• Iberian "bilos" (tribe/people) and Basque "bildu" (to gather).
• Iberian "bin" (to unite) and Basque "binatu" (match).
• Iberian "biŕ" (to multiply) and Basque "birrindu" (to grind).
• Iberian "bi" (many) and Basque "bi" (two).

These words share the "bi-" root with similar meanings. While Villamor’s work is notable, the question of a family link remains unresolved.

In 2005, Eduardo Orduña studied Iberian compounds that resemble Basque numerals. Joan Ferrer later expanded this, comparing Iberian and Basque numbers. For example:

• Iberian "ban" (one) and Basque "bat."
• Iberian "erder" (half) and Basque "erdi."

Orduña did not claim this proves a family link but suggested Basque might have borrowed Iberian words. Ferrer thought the similarity could be due to either borrowing or a family connection, though borrowing entire numeral systems is rare.

Joseba Lakarra (2010) rejected both borrowing and family links, arguing that Iberian’s limited geographic reach makes borrowing unlikely. Javier de Hoz (2011) found some Iberian elements could be numerals, supporting a possible family link, but noted that the match between Iberian and Basque numerals does not fit expected Proto-Basque forms. He also questioned the strength of the evidence for a family connection.

Eduardo Orduña (2011) defended his view that Iberian numerals match Basque numerals in structure and context, disagreeing with Lakarra’s rejection of this. He argued that Lakarra’s timeline for Basque development is unclear, while Michelena’s Proto-Basque reconstruction is more reliable. Orduña concluded that a family link is the simplest explanation for the similarities between Iberian and Basque numerals.

Francisco Villar (2014) noted that the similarity between Iberian and Basque numerals is comparable to similarities among Indo-European languages. He suggested the most sustainable explanation is a genetic (family) relationship.