Reincarnation, also called rebirth or transmigration, is the idea found in some religions that the spirit or soul of a living being starts a new life in a different body after the physical body dies. In most beliefs that include reincarnation, the soul of a human is believed to live forever and does not disappear when the body dies. After death, the soul is thought to move into a new baby or an animal to continue living. (The word "transmigration" means the soul moving from one body to another after death.)

Reincarnation, known as "punarjanman," is an important belief in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. In different ways, it is also part of secret or special beliefs in some groups of Judaism, ancient pagan religions (like Wicca), and among the Indigenous peoples of the Americas and Aboriginal Australians (though many of these groups believe in a spiritual world after death). Some ancient Greek thinkers, such as Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato, believed the soul could be reborn or move into another body (a process called metempsychosis).

Most groups within the Abrahamic religions (like Christianity, Islam, and Judaism) do not believe in reincarnation. However, some smaller groups within these religions, such as followers of Catharism, Alawites, Hasidic Judaism, the Druze, Kabbalistics, Rastafarians, and the Rosicrucians, do believe in reincarnation. Recent studies have looked at how different religious groups, both in ancient times and today, have believed in reincarnation. These studies include beliefs from traditions like Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manichaeanism, and Gnosticism from the Roman era, as well as beliefs from Indian religions. In recent years, many people in Europe and North America have shown interest in reincarnation, and some modern books have written about it.

Conceptual definitions

The word "reincarnation" comes from a Latin phrase that means "entering the flesh again." Reincarnation is the belief that a part of every person (or all living things in some cultures) continues to exist after death. This part may be the soul, mind, or consciousness, and it is thought to be reborn in a cycle of life. This cycle includes being born as a human, animal, plant, spirit, or being in another non-human form. The idea of this cycle changes depending on the culture.

Another term for this belief is "transmigration," which means moving from one life (or body) to another. This term has been used by modern thinkers like Kurt Gödel and is now part of the English language.

In Greek, the word for reincarnation is "metempsychosis," which comes from "meta" (meaning "change") and "empsykhoun" (meaning "to put a soul into"). This term is linked to the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras. A similar Greek word is "palingenesis," which means "being born again."

The idea of being reborn is important in major Indian religions. In these traditions, it is called "punarjanman" in Sanskrit, and other terms are used in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. These religions believe that reincarnation happens in an endless cycle called "Saṃsāra" unless a person gains spiritual knowledge that ends the cycle. This cycle is seen as a beginning of aimless wandering, but it also offers a chance to achieve freedom through ethical living, meditation, yoga, or other spiritual practices. Freedom from this cycle is considered the highest spiritual goal and is called "moksha," "nirvana," "mukti," or "kaivalya."

In Kabbalistic Judaism, the idea of reincarnation is called "Gilgul," which means "cycle," and "neshamot," meaning "souls." This concept is found in Yiddish writings among Ashkenazi Jews. According to this belief, humans are reborn only as humans unless God decides otherwise.

History

The origins of the idea of reincarnation are not clearly known. Discussions about this topic appear in the philosophical traditions of Ancient India. Greek thinkers before Socrates also talked about reincarnation, and the Celtic druids are reported to have taught a belief in reincarnation. Traditional African religions also believe in the idea of reincarnation.

The concepts of the cycle of birth and death, called saṁsāra, and liberation come from ascetic traditions in India that began around the middle of the first millennium BCE. The first written records about reincarnation appear in the Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Upanishads from the late Vedic period (around 1100 to 500 BCE), which is before the time of the Buddha and Mahavira. Some scholars suggest that tribes in the Ganges valley or Dravidian traditions in South India may also have influenced early beliefs about reincarnation.

The idea of reincarnation, saṁsāra, existed in early Vedic religions. The early Vedas mention the belief in karma and rebirth. These ideas are further explained in the early Upanishads, which were written before the time of the Buddha and Mahavira. The earliest parts of Vedic texts describe life, followed by an afterlife in heaven or hell based on a person’s actions (good or bad). However, ancient Vedic scholars questioned this idea because people do not all live equally moral or immoral lives. They argued that it would be unfair for people with different levels of virtue or vice to end up in heaven or hell in a simple, unequal way. Instead, they proposed that the afterlife should match a person’s actions in proportion.

Detailed descriptions of reincarnation first appear around the middle of the first millennium BCE in traditions such as Buddhism, Jainism, and various schools of Hindu philosophy. Each of these traditions gave unique explanations of the general idea.

The Purananuru, part of Sangam literature (ancient Tamil writings), mentions rebirth and moksha (liberation). It describes Hindu rituals after death, such as making riceballs called pinda and cremation. The text states that good souls are welcomed to Indraloka, a place in heaven, by Indra.

Surviving texts from ancient Jainism are from after the time of Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the first millennium BCE. These texts discuss rebirth and karma in detail. Jain philosophy believes the soul (called jiva in Jainism and atman in Hinduism) is eternal and moves through cycles of rebirth. After death, reincarnation into a new body is said to happen immediately in early Jain texts. The form of the next body depends on a person’s accumulated karma, which may lead to a higher or lower state, such as heaven, hell, or the earthly realm. No bodily form is permanent, as everyone dies and is reborn again. However, liberation (called kevalya) from reincarnation is possible by removing all karmic influences on the soul. From the early stages of Jainism, humans were considered the highest beings with the potential to achieve liberation, especially through ascetic practices.

Early Buddhist texts describe rebirth as part of the cycle of existence called saṃsāra. This cycle is described as an endless cycle of life, death, and rebirth, with no beginning or end. It is also called the "wheel of existence" (Bhavacakra) and is linked to the term punarbhava (rebirth). Liberation from this cycle, called Nirvana, is the main goal of Buddhism. Buddhist texts also say that an enlightened person can remember past lives, a skill achieved through deep meditation. Tibetan Buddhism discusses death, an intermediate state called bardo, and rebirth in texts like the Tibetan Book of the Dead. While Nirvana is the ultimate goal in Theravadin Buddhism and important in Mahayana Buddhism, most modern Buddhists focus on gaining good karma and merit to improve their future rebirth.

In early Buddhist traditions, the cycle of saṃsāra included five realms: hells (niraya), hungry ghosts (pretas), animals (tiryaka), humans (manushya), and gods (devas). Later traditions added a sixth realm, demigods (asuras).

Early texts from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism share similar ideas about reincarnation, karma, and virtuous practices. All three traditions emphasize values like non-violence, truthfulness, compassion, and charity as important for liberation and influencing future rebirths.

Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism have different views on rebirth. Hinduism believes in the existence of the soul (atman or attā), which is eternal and travels through reincarnations until it gains self-knowledge. Buddhism teaches that there is no soul or self (anatta or anatman) and that Nirvana is achieved by realizing the concept of non-self. Jainism agrees with Buddhism that there is no soul in the way Hinduism describes it, but it believes the soul (jiva) exists and is involved in the rebirth process. Jainism also emphasizes ascetic practices as a way to end the cycle of reincarnation, while Buddhism does not focus on asceticism in the same way.

Early Greek thinkers discussed reincarnation as early as the sixth century BCE. One early Greek thinker, Pherecydes of Syros (around 540 BCE), considered the idea. Pythagoras (around 570–495 BCE), a famous Greek philosopher, promoted the idea and formed groups to spread it. Some scholars believe Pythagoras learned about reincarnation from Pherecydes, while others think he got the idea from Orphism, a religious tradition, or from India.

Plato (428/427–348/347 BCE) wrote about reincarnation in his works, especially in the Myth of Er, where he describes a man named Er who returns to life after death and shares knowledge about the afterlife. Other dialogues, such as the Phaedrus, Meno, Timaeus, and Laws, also include ideas about the soul returning to a new body after leaving the body. In the Timaeus, Plato suggests that the soul moves from one body to another without a clear reward or punishment phase, as reincarnation itself is a result of a person’s actions. In the Phaedo, Plato has Socrates say that life continues after death. Some scholars believe Plato’s ideas about reincarnation were influenced by Pythagorean or Orphic beliefs.

Religions and philosophies

According to Buddhist teachings, Gautama Buddha believed in an afterlife and the idea of reincarnation. This is mentioned in the Majjhima Nikaya i.402, Apannaka Sutta, translated by Peter Harvey. The Buddha also taught that actions, or karma, influence rebirth. He believed that the cycle of birth and death continues endlessly. Before the Buddha’s time, some schools of thought, like the Charvaka, believed that death ended everything, with no soul, rebirth, or karma. They claimed that a person completely disappears after death. The Buddha disagreed with these ideas and instead supported the belief in rebirth and karma. He argued that denying rebirth and karma could lead to moral irresponsibility and selfish behavior. He connected moral choices to the cycle of rebirth.

The Buddha taught the concept of anattā, which means there is no permanent self or soul. Major Buddhist traditions, such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana, accept this teaching. These traditions believe in rebirth but reject the idea of a permanent soul. They teach that all living things are made of temporary parts that dissolve at death, but rebirth continues endlessly. This cycle of rebirth and suffering, called duhkha, can end through achieving nirvana. The idea of anattā contrasts with Hinduism, which teaches that a soul exists and connects all lives through reincarnation.

Different Buddhist traditions explain how rebirth happens. One theory suggests that consciousness, or the stream of awareness, continues after death and enters a new life. This process is compared to a candle flame lighting another candle. The consciousness in the new life is not the same as the old one but is connected through a continuous flow. This process is influenced by past actions, or karma. The root cause of rebirth, according to Buddhism, is ignorance about the true nature of reality. When this ignorance is removed, rebirth stops.

Buddhist traditions also differ in their views about the time between death and rebirth. Theravada Buddhists believe rebirth happens immediately after death. However, Tibetan and some Chinese and Japanese traditions believe in a bardo, an intermediate state that can last up to 49 days. This concept, which includes visions of deities, is described in texts like The Tibetan Book of the Dead. All major Buddhist traditions agree that rebirth depends on past karma and that there are six possible realms where a being can be reborn.

In Japanese Zen, some people accept reincarnation, while others reject it. This difference is between "folk Zen," which includes beliefs in supernatural elements like rebirth, and "philosophical Zen," which focuses more on the present moment.

Some Buddhist schools believe that karma remains with a person until it is resolved. For example, the Sautrantika school compares actions to seeds that grow later. Tibetan Buddhism emphasizes the state of mind at death, believing that a peaceful mind leads to a good rebirth, while a troubled mind leads to a bad one.

A 2009 Pew Forum survey found that 22% of American Christians believe in reincarnation. A 1981 survey showed that 31% of European Catholics who regularly attend church also believe in reincarnation. Some Christian theologians have interpreted certain Bible passages as suggesting reincarnation, such as when Jesus was asked if he was Elijah or John the Baptist. However, the Catholic Church and theologians like Norman Geisler reject reincarnation, arguing that it is not in line with Christian teachings. The Bible states that people die once and are judged, unlike the idea of reincarnation.

Some early Christian thinkers, like Origen, may have believed in reincarnation, but this is debated. His writings were mistranslated, and some scholars argue he never taught this. Other early religious groups, like the Gnostics, believed in reincarnation, but Church leaders like Augustine opposed it.

The Druze faith teaches that the soul is tied to the body and is reborn immediately after death. Unlike Hinduism and Buddhism, the Druze believe the soul cannot exist without the body.

Reincarnation and science

Scientists have not proven reincarnation, but some people still discuss it. Some researchers in the study of unusual mental abilities claim they have scientific evidence, while others say their work is not real science. Skeptic Carl Sagan asked the Dalai Lama what would happen if science proved reincarnation was false. The Dalai Lama said that if science disproved reincarnation, Tibetan Buddhism would stop believing in it, but he thought it would be very difficult to prove reincarnation wrong. Sagan thought stories about remembering past lives were worth studying, even though he believed they were unlikely.

Over 40 years, psychiatrist Ian Stevenson from the University of Virginia studied young children who claimed to remember past lives. He wrote 12 books about these cases. He recorded what the children said, what family members and others reported, and sometimes compared these stories to details about people who had died. He also looked at birthmarks or injuries on children that seemed to match wounds on the deceased. He included medical records, like photos from autopsies, in his research. Because claims about remembering past lives can be false or made up, Stevenson expected people to question his work. He said he looked for evidence that could prove his findings wrong and tried to find other explanations, but he often found no clear answers.

Carl Sagan admired Stevenson’s work and wrote about it in his book The Demon-Haunted World, calling it carefully collected evidence. He did not believe reincarnation explained the stories, but he said more research was needed. Another writer, Sam Harris, mentioned Stevenson’s work in his book The End of Faith as part of evidence that might support claims about psychic abilities.

Stevenson’s research was criticized by some scholars. Philosopher Paul Edwards said Stevenson’s stories were not real science because they were based on personal stories and not enough examples. He argued that the stories might come from people’s beliefs, not real past lives. Another scholar, Keith Augustine, said most of Stevenson’s cases happened in places where people strongly believe in reincarnation, suggesting that culture, not reincarnation, might explain the stories. Scientists also say there is no known way for a person’s personality to survive death and move to another body, so proving reincarnation would require very strong evidence. Another critic, Ian Wilson, noted that many of Stevenson’s cases involved poor children claiming to remember lives of wealthy people or high social status, which he said might be used to get money from richer families.

Stevenson also claimed some cases showed evidence of people speaking languages they had not learned before, called xenoglossy. A linguist named Sarah Thomason studied these cases and said the evidence was not strong enough to support the claims.

Other researchers, like Jim B. Tucker and Antonia Mills, have also studied similar topics, but Stevenson’s work is the most well-known.

Some people who believe in reincarnation rely on memories of past lives found through hypnosis, a practice popularized by psychiatrist Brian Weiss. He says he helped over 4,000 patients since 1980. However, these memories often include mistakes about history from modern books or movies. Studies show that believing in reincarnation and the hypnotist’s suggestions are the main reasons people report these memories. Hypnosis can make people more likely to create false memories, which mix real experiences, imagination, and guidance from the hypnotist. These memories feel real but are not based on actual past events.

Past-life regression, the practice of using hypnosis to find memories of past lives, has been criticized as unethical. It is called pseudoscience because it lacks proof and can lead to false memories. Experts say it can cause harm by making people believe in things that are not true. The American Psychological Association says using past-life regression in therapy is unethical. Hypnosis can make people vulnerable to being influenced, which might lead to harmful false memories. Gabriel Andrade, a researcher, said this practice violates the rule of "do no harm," a principle from the Hippocratic Oath.