The Essenes were a Jewish group that lived during the time of the Second Temple, from around 200 BCE to 100 CE. They were known for their strict religious practices and beliefs. The Essene movement began as a separate group of Jews during the time of Jonathan Apphus, a leader who was not widely accepted as a high priest. Most scholars believe the Essenes were connected to the Zadokite priests, a group of Jewish religious leaders. They followed a strict version of Jewish law, respected a hierarchy that gave priests special roles, and believed in keeping their lives and actions pure. They also saw the world as divided between good and evil.

Jewish writers Josephus and Philo wrote that there were about 4,000 Essenes living in many places across Judaea. A Roman writer named Pliny the Elder said they lived near Ein Gedi, on the western side of the Dead Sea. He noted that the Essenes did not own money, had lived for many generations, and their priests did not marry. Josephus, who claimed to have firsthand knowledge, described the Essenes in his writings as one of three Jewish religious groups, along with the Pharisees and Sadducees. He wrote that they did not own personal property, practiced daily ritual baths in water, shared meals after prayer, avoided anger, studied religious texts, kept secrets, and respected sacred writings that included the names of angels.

The Essenes became well-known in modern times because of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, religious texts believed to belong to them. These scrolls were found at Qumran, a site near the Dead Sea, which was likely an Essene settlement. The scrolls include copies of parts of the Hebrew Bible, other religious texts, and writings like the Community Rule, the Damascus Document, and the War Scroll.

Most scholars believe the Essenes disappeared after the First Jewish-Roman War, which also led to the destruction of Qumran. However, there is no direct evidence to support this, so some researchers think their influence may have continued or that similar groups survived later. Some scholars suggest Essene ideas might have influenced other religious groups, such as Mandaeism and Christianity.

Etymology

Josephus wrote about a group called the Essenes in two of his major works, The Jewish War (2.119, 158, 160) and Antiquities of the Jews (13.171–2). Some older copies of these texts use the word Essaion, which means "holding the Essenes in honor" or "a certain Essene named Manaemus." In other parts of his writings, Josephus used the spelling Essaios, which scholars believe refers to the Essenes. Examples include "Judas of the Essaios race" and "John the Essaios." Josephus described the Essenes as one of the three main Jewish groups during that time.

The philosopher Philo used the Greek spelling Essaioi for the same group. He noted that this Greek version was not exact and that the original name likely meant "holiness." The Roman writer Pliny used the Latin spelling Esseni.

Gabriele Boccaccini suggested that no clear origin for the name "Essene" has been found, but the term likely described a larger group in Judea that included the people from Qumran. Before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, some scholars thought the name came from a Hebrew phrase, ʻosey haTorah, meaning "doers of the Torah." This idea was later confirmed by texts found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Scholars like VanderKam and Goranson have discussed how different spellings, such as Ossaioi, Essaioi, and Esseni, might relate to this origin.

In medieval Hebrew texts, like Sefer Yosippon, the name Hassidim ("the Pious") was used instead of "Essenes." This Hebrew name is not directly connected to the Greek or Latin spellings, but an Aramaic term, Hesi'im, from Eastern Aramaic texts, has been suggested as a possible link. Other scholars think the name Essene might come from the Hebrew word ḥiṣonim, meaning "outsiders," which the Mishnah used to describe certain groups. Another idea is that the name was borrowed from a group in Anatolia who worshipped the goddess Artemis and had similar clothing and behavior to the Essenes.

Flavius Josephus wrote in Chapter 8 of The Jewish War:

Location

According to Josephus, the Essenes lived "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town." Philo described "more than four thousand" Essaioi living in "Palestine and Syria," specifically "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages, grouped in great societies of many members."

Pliny located them "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast… [above] the town of Engeda."

Some modern scholars and archaeologists believe the Essenes lived in the settlement at Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert near the Dead Sea. They support this idea by citing Pliny the Elder and suggest the Dead Sea Scrolls were created by the Essenes. This theory is not yet proven, but it is widely discussed by scholars and often shared by the public.

Near Qumran, along the Dead Sea shore, are other sites like Ein Feshkha and Ain el-Ghuweir, which are connected to the Qumran settlement. The cemetery at Ain el-Ghuweir is somewhat similar to those at Qumran, though it also includes burials of women and children.

Individual burials found at the Qumran cemeteries differ from burial practices in other parts of Israel. This suggests "that the residents of Qumran were not families and that it was a community cemetery."

Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs

The writings of Josephus and Philo describe the Essenes as a group that lived together in a community, often compared to later Christian monastic groups. Some Essene groups did not marry, but Josephus also mentions a group that lived together for three years before marrying. According to Josephus, the Essenes shared everything they owned, chose a leader to manage the group, and followed the leader’s instructions. They did not make promises under oath or sacrifice animals. They controlled their anger, avoided fighting, and only carried weapons to protect themselves from thieves. They did not own slaves, helped each other, and did not buy or sell goods because of their shared ownership. Josephus and Philo wrote in detail about their meetings, meals, and religious events. Scholars believe the Essenes practiced fairness in how they shared resources and treated others equally.

Although the Essenes did not make promises under oath, new members after a three-year period would promise to be faithful to God, act kindly toward others, live morally, follow their rules without changing them, and protect their writings and the names of angels. They believed souls live forever and would return to people after death. They used water for purification rituals, collecting rainwater for this purpose. According to the Community Rule, they had to repent before being allowed to use the water for purification.

Many people in Judea during this time used ritual baths, called mikvehs, for purification. These baths were found near synagogues and are still used today. The Essenes considered purity and cleanliness very important, so they avoided using the bathroom on the Sabbath.

Epiphanius, a writer from the 4th century CE, described two groups among the Essenes: the Ossaeans and the Nasaraeans. He explained that these groups followed different practices. Little is known about the books the Essenes used or their views on extra writings not in the Bible. No copies of the book of Esther were found at Qumran, possibly because the Essenes opposed mixed marriages and used different calendars.

The Essenes were unusual for their time because they did not own slaves. They believed owning slaves was wrong and against their beliefs, thinking all people were born equal.

Involvement in the First Jewish–Roman War

At the beginning of the First Jewish–Roman War in 66 CE, as Roman forces were expected to advance, John the Essene (or Essaean) was given responsibility for parts of western Judea. He was placed in charge of the region called Thamna, which included the areas of Lydda, Joppa, and Emmaus.

Scholarly discussion

Josephus and Philo wrote about the Essenes in detail. Many scholars think the group at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were found, was connected to the Essenes. However, some scholars disagree. For example, Norman Golb says the research done by Father Roland de Vaux from the École Biblique et Archéologique de Jérusalem did not use proper scientific methods and led to incorrect conclusions that became widely accepted. Golb argues that the large number of documents found at Qumran includes many different writing styles, and the ruins look like a fortress that might have been used as a military base for a long time, including during the 1st century. This suggests the Essenes may not have lived there. Additionally, a large graveyard found near Qumran in 1870 had over 1,200 tombs, including those of women and children. Pliny wrote that the Essenes near the Dead Sea had no women and lived without pleasure, with no children born into their group. Golb’s book points out that de Vaux’s conclusions were accepted too quickly by other scholars. He believes the documents likely came from libraries in Jerusalem and were moved to the desert to protect them from Roman attacks. Other scholars disagree, especially since Josephus wrote that some Essenes allowed marriage.

Another topic is the connection between the Essaioi and Philo’s groups, the Therapeutae and Therapeutrides. Philo described the Therapeutae as a group within the Essaioi who focused on prayer and reflection, while others lived more active lives.

One idea about the Essenes’ origins is that they were started by a Jewish high priest, called the Teacher of Righteousness by the Essenes. This priest’s position was taken over by Jonathan, who was not of the Zadokite family and was called the “man of lies” or “false priest.” Some scholars believe the Teacher of Righteousness was also the original Messianic figure about 150 years before the time of the Gospels. Fred Gladstone Bratton mentions this idea.

Lawrence Schiffman argues that the Qumran community may have been more closely linked to the Sadducees than the Essenes because their beliefs match Sadducean traditions.

Connection to other religious traditions

The Haran Gawaita refers to the Mandaeans who fled from Jerusalem as the Nasoraeans. This name means "guardians of secret knowledge." Scholars like Kurt Rudolph, Rudolf Macúch, Mark Lidzbarski, and Ethel S. Drower connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius, a group within the Essenes according to Joseph Lightfoot. Epiphanius (29:6) says the Nasaraeans existed before Jesus. Some question this, but others believe the Nasaraeans originated before the time of Jesus.

Early religious ideas and terms appear in the Dead Sea Scrolls. In Mandaeism, the name "Yardena" has been used for every baptismal water. The Mandaic term "Mara ḏ-Rabuta," meaning "Lord of Greatness" (one of the names for the Mandaean God Hayyi Rabbi), appears in the Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. Another early term used by Mandaeans is "bhiria zidqa," meaning "elect of righteousness" or "the chosen righteous." This term is found in the Book of Enoch and the Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe they are the true group of "bnia nhura," meaning "Sons of Light," a term also used by the Essenes. Mandaean writings state that they descend directly from John the Baptist’s original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem. Like the Essenes, it is forbidden for Mandaeans to tell a non-Mandaean the names of the angels. Essene graves are aligned north to south, and Mandaean graves must also follow this direction so that a deceased Mandaean would face north if standing upright. Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian and, like the Essenes, they are pacifists.

The Mandaean term "bit manda" (or "beth manda") is described as "biniana rba ḏ-šrara" ("the Great building of Truth") and "bit tušlima" ("house of Perfection") in texts like the Qulasta, Ginza Rabba, and the Mandaean Book of John. Similar phrases appear in Essene texts from Qumran, such as the Community Rule, which mentions the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel."

Rituals of the Essenes and Christianity share many similarities. The Dead Sea Scrolls describe a meal of bread and wine that will be established by the messiah. Both the Essenes and Christians were groups that believed the end of the world could come at any time. The New Testament may include quotes from writings used by the Qumran community. For example, Luke 1:31-35 says, "And now you will conceive in your womb and bear a son and you will name him Jesus. He will be great and will be called the son of the Most High … the son of God." This echoes a text from 4Q246, which states: "He will be called great and he will be called Son of God, and they will call him Son of the Most High … He will judge the earth in righteousness … and every nation will bow down to him."

Other similarities include strong devotion to the faith, even to the point of martyrdom, communal prayer, self-denial, and a belief in living in a sinful world.

John the Baptist has been compared to the Essenes because of shared beliefs and practices. Historian Daniel R. Schwartz noted that John and the Qumran community both lived in the Judaean Desert and emphasized an ascetic lifestyle. John taught his followers to share possessions and believed judgment was near. He also came from a priestly family and linked repentance with ritual immersion. These ideas are also found among the people of Qumran. Schwartz suggests that even if John was not an Essene, the Essene community provided the background for his work. He may have been influenced by people connected to the Essenes. Through John’s connection with Jesus, the Essene influence may have reached early Christianity.

In the early church, a book called the Odes of Solomon was written. The author was likely a convert from the Essene community to Christianity. The book combines mystical ideas from the Essenes with Christian beliefs.

Both the Essenes and Christians practiced voluntary celibacy and prohibited divorce. They also used the terms "light" and "darkness" to represent good and evil.

Some claim the Essenes believed in a pierced Messiah based on 4Q285, but the text’s meaning is unclear. Some scholars think it refers to the Messiah being killed, while others believe it describes the Messiah defeating Israel’s enemies in an end-time battle.

Both the Essenes and Christians used water immersion as a ritual, but the Essenes practiced it regularly, not just once.

In the 17th century, writers linked to the Carmelites, such as Daniel de la Vierge-Marie, claimed the Essenes were proto-Christians and connected to the Carmelites since the time of the Prophet Elias. This idea was controversial and debated with the Bollandists.

The Magharians or Magarites (Arabic: Al-Maghariyyah, "people of the caves") were a Jewish sect founded in the 1st century BCE, according to Jacob Qirqisani. Abraham Harkavy and others believe the Magharians were the Essenes. This connection is based on evidence such as:
– The sect’s name refers to followers who lived in caves or desert areas, a lifestyle common to the Essenes.
– The founding date of the Magharians matches that of the Essenes.
– The belief that God interacts with humans through an angel aligns with Essene and Philo’s ideas about the Logos.
– Qirqisani did not list the Essenes in his Jewish sects, which may mean he considered the Magharians and Essenes the same group.