Sufism (Arabic: التصوف‎, romanized: al-Taṣawwuf) is a spiritual tradition within Islam that focuses on religious purification, spirituality, rituals, and simple living. People who practice Sufism are called "Sufis" (from صُوفِيّ, ṣūfīy). Historically, Sufis joined groups called tariqa (plural: turuq), which were formed around a respected teacher, or wali, who was part of a chain of teachers connected to the Prophet Muhammad. The goal of these groups was to purify the soul (tazkiyah) and reach a high spiritual state called ihsan. The main aim of Sufis is to seek God’s approval by striving to return to their original pure and natural state, known as fitra.

Sufism began early in Islamic history, partly as a response to the growth of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and was strongly influenced by Hasan al-Basri. While Sufis opposed strict legalism, they followed Islamic law and belonged to different schools of Islamic law and theology. Most Sufis, both in the past and today, are followers of Sunni Islam. However, some Sufi ideas later influenced Shia Islam, especially after the Safavid dynasty in Iran promoted Shia beliefs. A key Sufi practice is dhikr, which involves remembering God through prayer and chanting. Sufis also helped spread Islam through teaching and missionary work.

Although Sufi groups have declined in modern times and faced opposition from movements like Salafism and Wahhabism, Sufism remains important in the Islamic world. It has also influenced spiritual traditions in the West and is widely studied by scholars.

Definitions

The Arabic word tasawwuf (which means "Sufism") is often translated as "Sufism" and is usually described by Western writers as Islamic mysticism. The Arabic word Sufi has been used in Islamic writings with many different meanings by both people who support Sufism and those who oppose it. Classical Sufi texts, which focused on teachings and practices from the Quran and the sunnah (the teachings and actions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad), explained tasawwuf as a way to achieve ethical and spiritual goals. These texts also served as guides to help people reach those goals. Other terms were used in more practical situations to describe specific spiritual qualities and roles.

Some modern scholars have described Sufism in different ways, such as "making Islamic faith and practice stronger" or "the process of achieving ethical and spiritual ideals."

The term "Sufism" was first used in European languages in the 18th century by scholars who studied the East. These scholars saw Sufism mainly as a set of ideas and writings that were different from what they considered the simple belief in one God in Islam. Sufism was often misunderstood as a type of universal mysticism, unlike the strict rules of traditional Islam. Recently, historian Nile Green argued that during the medieval period, Sufism and Islam were almost the same. Today, the term "Sufism" is used by scholars to describe many different social, cultural, political, and religious aspects connected to Sufis.

Sufism has been described in many ways, including "Islamic mysticism," "the mystical expression of Islamic faith," "the inner part of Islam," "the mystical part of Islam," "the main way mysticism shows in Islam," and "the process of making Islamic faith and practice more personal and stronger."

Etymology

The word "Sufi" is believed to have originally meant "someone who wears wool (ṣūf)." The Encyclopaedia of Islam says other theories about where the word comes from are not supported by evidence. In the past, woolen clothing was connected to people who lived simple lives and focused on spiritual matters. Scholars like Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun argued that the only valid explanation is the word ṣūf, based on the study of language. Some medieval scholars, such as Al-Biruni, thought the term "Sufi" may have developed from the Greek word "sophos," which means wisdom or knowledge.

Another possible origin of the word is the Arabic root ṣafā, meaning "purity." This connects to the Islamic idea of "tasawwuf," which is similar to "tazkiyah" (self-purification), a concept often used in Sufism. These two ideas were combined by the Sufi Al-Hasan ibn Salih al-Rudhabari, who said, "A Sufi is someone who wears wool and pursues purity."

Some people suggest the word comes from "Ahl al-Ṣuffa," meaning "the people of the bench." This group included poor followers of Muhammad who met regularly for spiritual practices, such as remembering God. One well-known member was Abu Hurayra. Some believe these individuals were among the earliest Sufis.

History

The current agreement among scholars is that Sufism began in the Hejaz, which is now part of Saudi Arabia. It has been practiced by Muslims since the earliest days of Islam, even before some religious groups formed.

Sufi orders are based on the bay'ah (a pledge of loyalty) that Muhammad's companions (ṣahabah) gave to him. By pledging allegiance to Muhammad, the companions committed themselves to serving God.

Sufis believe that by giving bay'ah to a legitimate Sufi shaykh (spiritual teacher), one is also pledging allegiance to Muhammad. This creates a spiritual connection between the seeker and Muhammad. Sufis believe they learn about and connect with God through Muhammad. Ali, one of Muhammad's closest companions, is considered a major figure in Sufism. Sufis believe that knowledge about Muhammad and a connection to him can be gained through Ali. This idea is supported by a hadith (a saying of Muhammad), which Sufis regard as true. In the hadith, Muhammad said, "I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate." Eminent Sufis like Ali Hujwiri and Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as a highly respected figure in Tasawwuf (Sufism).

Historian Jonathan A.C. Brown notes that during Muhammad's lifetime, some companions practiced intense devotion, self-discipline, and deep reflection on spiritual matters more than required by Islam. Examples include Abu Dharr al-Ghifari and Hasan al-Basri, who is considered a "founding figure" in the "science of purifying the heart."

Sufism developed early in Islamic history, partly as a response to the worldly focus of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the guidance of Hasan al-Basri.

Sufism, in its early stages, was seen as the internalization of Islam. Some believe it originated from the Qur'an, which is constantly recited, meditated on, and experienced. Others see it as strict imitation of Muhammad's way of life to strengthen the heart's connection to God.

Later developments of Sufism were influenced by figures like Dawud Tai and Bayazid Bastami. Early Sufism emphasized strict adherence to the sunnah (Muhammad's teachings). For example, Bastami refused to eat a watermelon because there was no proof Muhammad ever ate it. The Persian poet Jami noted that Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah (died around 716) was the first person called a "Sufi." The term "Sufi" was strongly connected to Kufa, with early scholars like Abu Hashim al-Kufi, Jabir ibn Hayyan, and Abdak al-Sufi being called by this name. Later individuals included Hatim al-Attar and Al-Junayd al-Baghdadi. Others, like Al-Harith al-Muhasibi and Sari al-Saqati, were not known as Sufis during their lifetimes but were later recognized for their focus on tazkiah (spiritual purification).

Important early writings on Sufism were contributed by scholars such as Uwais al-Qarani, Hasan of Basra, Harith al-Muhasibi, Abu Nasr as-Sarraj, and Said ibn al-Musayyib. Ruwaym and Junayd of Baghdad were influential early figures, with many Sufis being their disciples.

Historically, Sufis often belonged to "orders" called tariqa (pl. ṭuruq), which are groups formed around a spiritual leader (wali) who traces their teachings back to Muhammad. These orders meet in places like zawiyas, khanqahs, or tekke for spiritual sessions (majalis).

Sufis strive for ihsan (the perfection of worship), as described in a hadith: "Worship Allah as if you see Him; if you cannot see Him, surely He sees you." Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the perfect human who embodies the attributes of Absolute Reality, and view him as their ultimate spiritual guide.

Most Sufi orders trace their teachings back to Muhammad through Ali ibn Abi Talib, except the Naqshbandi order, which traces its teachings to Muhammad through Abu Bakr. However, it was not necessary to formally belong to a tariqa. During the Medieval period, Sufism was nearly as widespread as Islam itself and not limited to specific orders.

Sufism existed long before the formal creation of Sufi orders (tariqa) in the early Middle Ages. The term tariqa refers to a school or order of Sufism, or the mystical teachings and practices of such an order aimed at seeking ḥaqīqah (ultimate truth). A tariqa has a murshid (spiritual guide) who leads the order. Members of a tariqa are called murīdīn (singular: murīd), meaning "desirous" of knowing and loving God.

Over time, Sufi orders influenced and were adopted by various Shi'i movements, especially Isma'ilism. This led to the Safaviyya order's conversion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam and the spread of Twelverism in Iran.

Sufism exists in both Sunni and Shia Islam and is not a separate religious sect, as some mistakenly believe. Instead, it is a method of approaching or understanding the religion, aiming to elevate regular religious practices to a "supererogatory level" by fulfilling religious duties and seeking a deeper spiritual connection with God. Academic studies confirm that Sufism, as a distinct tradition from Islam, is often a product of Western orientalism and modern Islamic fundamentalists.

As a mystical and ascetic aspect of Islam, Sufism focuses on the purification of the inner self. By emphasizing the spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis seek direct experience of God through intuitive and emotional faculties, which require training. Tasawwuf is regarded as a science of the soul that has always been part of Orthodox Islam. In his work Al-Risala al-Safadiyya, ibn Taymiyyah described Sufis as those who follow the path of the Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings.

Ibn Taymiyyah's respect for Sufis like Abdul-Qadir Gilani is evident in his commentary on Futuh al-ghayb, where he emphasized the importance of tasawwuf in the Islamic community.

In Al-Munqidh min al-dalal, Al-Ghazali wrote that in the 11th century, Sufism, which had previously been an informal trend in Islamic piety, began to be organized into structured orders that continue to this day. These orders were founded by major Islamic scholars, including the Suhrawardiyya (after Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi), Qadiriyya (after Abdul-Qadir Gilani), Rifa'iyya (after Ahmed al-Rifa'i), Chishtiyya (after Moinuddin Chishti), Shadiliyya (after Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili), Hamadaniyyah (after Sayyid Ali Hamadani

Sufi orders

This chart shows the spiritual lineage (silsila) of major Sufi orders and their connection to the Prophet Muhammad.

Note: This chart is designed to illustrate how spiritual teachers are linked through their lineage. To make it easier to read, some names of teachers in between have been left out. For more detailed information about each order's lineage, please visit their pages.

Shaykh Abdul Qadir al-Jilani → Shaykh Abū Saʿīd al-Mukharramī → Shaykh Abū al-Ḥasan al-Qurashī (al-Ḥakkārī) → Shaykh Abū al-Faraj al-Ṭarsūsī → Shaykh ʿAbd al-Wāḥid al-Tamīmī → Shaykh ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Tamīmī → Shaykh Abū Bakr al-Shiblī → Shaykh al-Junayd al-Baghdādī → Shaykh al-Sarī al-Saqaṭī → Shaykh Maʿrūf al-Karkhī → Imam ʿAlī al-Riḍā → Imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim → Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq → Imam Muḥammad al-Bāqir → Imam Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn → Imam al-Ḥusayn → Imam ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti → Khwāja ʿUthmān Harvānī → Ḥājjī Sharīf Zindānī → Muḥammad Maudūd Chishtī → Abū Yūsuf Chishtī → Abū Muḥammad ibn Abī Aḥmad → Abū Aḥmad ʿAbdāl Chishtī → Abū Isḥāq Shāmī Chishtī → Mamshād ʿUlw Dīnawarī → Amīnuddīn Abū Hubayrah Baṣrī → Saʿduddīn Huḍhayfah Marʿashī → Ibrāhīm ibn Adham al-Balkhī → Fuḍayl ibn ʿIyāḍ → ʿAbd al-Wāḥid ibn Zayd → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Baha' al-din Naqshband → Sayyid Amīr Kulāl → Muḥammad Bābā Sammāsī → ʿAlī Rāmitanī (Azīzān) → Maḥmūd Anjīr Faghnawī → ʿĀrif Riwgarī → ʿAbd al-Khāliq Ghujduwānī → Abū Yaʿqūb Yūsuf al-Hamadānī → Abū ʿAlī al-Farmadī al-Ṭūsī → Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī al-Kharaqānī → Abū Yazīd al-Bisṭāmī → Imām Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq → Qāsim ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr → Salmān al-Fārisī → Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Shihab ad-din Suhrawardi → Abū Najīb ʿAbd al-Qādir Suhrawardī → Khwāja Aḥmad Ghazzālī → Shaykh Abū Bakr Nisāj → Shaykh Abū al-Qāsim Gurgānī → Khwāja Usmān Maghribī → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Kātib → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Rudhbārī → Imām Junayd Baghdādī → Sarrī Saqaṭī → Maʿrūf Karkhī → Dāwūd Ṭāʾī → Ḥabīb al-ʿAjamī → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Najm ad-Dīn Kubrā → Shaykh Rūzbahān Baqlī → Khwāja ʿAmmār Yāsir → Shaykh Abū Najīb Suhrawardī → Khwāja Aḥmad Ghazzālī → Shaykh Abū Bakr Nisāj → Shaykh Abū al-Qāsim Gurgānī → Khwāja Usmān Maghribī → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Kātib → Shaykh Abū ʿAlī Rudhbārī → Imām Junayd Baghdādī → Sarrī Saqaṭī → Maʿrūf Karkhī → Dāwūd Ṭāʾī → Ḥabīb al-ʿAjamī → al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Nūruddīn Abū al-Ḥasan al-Shādhilī → ʿAbd al-Salām ibn Mashīsh → ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Madanī → Taqīuddīn al-Ṣūfī → Fakhruddīn → Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī → Tājuddīn → Shamsuddīn → Zaynuddīn Maḥmūd al-Qazwīnī → Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm al-Baṣrī → Abū al-Qāsim Mirwānī → Abū Muḥammad Saʿīd → Abū Muḥammad Saʿd → Fātiḥ al-Masʿūdī → Saʿīd al-Qirwānī → Abū Muḥammad Jābir → Imām al-Ḥasan → ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib → Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ

Aims and objectives

Traditionally, Muslims believe that Islam is the way to reach Allah and aim to become closer to God in Paradise—both after death and following the Last Judgment. Sufis also believe that it is possible to grow closer to God and experience His presence more fully in this life. The main goal of Sufism is to seek God’s pleasure by working to restore the original state of purity, called fitra, within themselves.

To Sufis, the outer law includes rules about worship, daily life, marriage, legal matters, and criminal law—often called qanun. The inner law of Sufism focuses on rules about repenting for sins, removing bad traits, and developing good character and virtues.

Sufis believe that spiritual progress comes from the transmission of divine light from the teacher’s heart to the student’s heart, not through worldly knowledge. They also believe that teachers must follow divine law accurately.

According to Moojan Momen, a key Sufi belief is the idea of al-Insān al-Kāmil ("the Perfect Human"), which suggests that there is always a qutb (a central figure in Sufism) on Earth who acts as a perfect channel of God’s grace to humanity. This qutb is similar to the imam in Shia Islam. However, this belief creates tension between Sufism and Shia Islam because both the qutb and the imam are seen as spiritual guides. Sufis taking vows of obedience to their teacher or qutb are considered incompatible with devotion to the imam.

For example, someone wanting to join the Mevlevi Order might be required to work in a hospice for the poor for 1,001 days before receiving spiritual instruction. They might also spend another 1,001 days in solitary retreat before completing their training.

Some Sufi teachers use parables, stories, and metaphors to explain ideas, especially when teaching diverse groups. While Sufi practices vary, the tradition emphasizes personal spiritual experience. This has sometimes led to comparisons with non-Islamic mysticism, as noted by scholars like Seyyed Hossein Nasr.

Many Sufis believe that reaching the highest spiritual goals often requires living with and serving a teacher for a long time. For example, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who founded the Naqshbandi Order, is said to have served his first teacher for 20 years. He later helped others and cared for animals, as advised by his mentor.

Sufis deeply respect Prophet Muhammad, seeing him as the greatest spiritual figure. The Sufi poet Saadi Shirazi said, "No one can reach the goal without following the path of the Prophet." Rumi credited Muhammad for his self-discipline and ability to resist worldly desires. Ibn Arabi described Muhammad as the most perfect human and the embodiment of God’s attributes. He believed that knowing Muhammad is the same as knowing God.

A famous Sufi poem, Qaṣīdat Al-Burda ("Poem of the Mantle"), written by Al-Busiri in the 13th century, praises Muhammad and is still widely recited today.

Ibn Arabi believed that Islam is the best religion because of Muhammad. He saw Muhammad as the first being created and the most perfect human, serving as the ultimate example for others to follow. He argued that God’s attributes are fully revealed in Muhammad, making him the clearest proof of God’s existence.

Sufis believe that the sharia (religious law), tariqa (spiritual path), and haqiqa (truth) are connected. Sufism guides followers, called salik, through stages of spiritual growth until they reach tawhid—the belief that God is one. Ibn Arabi emphasized that no one can guide others to God unless they strictly follow all religious rules, even if they perform miracles.

Malik ibn Anas, a founder of one of the four major Sunni legal schools, supported combining spiritual knowledge with religious law. For example, Qadi Iyad, a 12th-century judge, later became respected for blending mystical wisdom with legal study.

Devotional practices

The devotional practices of Sufis differ among different groups. To practice, individuals must strictly follow Islamic traditions, such as performing the five daily prayers, fasting during Ramadan, and other required acts. They must also engage in extra religious activities that were part of the life of the Prophet Muhammad, like the "sunnah prayers." This is supported by a well-known religious saying from God, called a Hadith Qudsi.

A seeker must also believe firmly in the correct Islamic beliefs (aqidah) and accept them without doubt. They must avoid sins, worldly desires, pride, and following harmful impulses. Purifying the heart is essential, but the exact methods are usually explained by a Sufi teacher. Additionally, seekers must learn to avoid damaging good deeds by resisting temptations like showing off, arrogance, envy, and hoping for a long life to correct mistakes later.

Sufi practices are not a way to gain knowledge about God. Traditional Sufi scholars believe that knowing God is not achieved through breathing techniques or similar methods. Instead, these practices may create opportunities for knowledge if the seeker meets the proper requirements and has a qualified teacher. However, the focus on practices might hide a more important goal: becoming a person who is completely free from bad habits through practices like solitude, silence, and self-discipline, as described by the Islamic scholar Imam Al-Ghazali.

Dhikr is the act of remembering Allah, which the Quran commands all Muslims to perform. It includes repeating divine names, prayers, and sayings from the Quran and Hadith. More broadly, dhikr means any activity where a Muslim remains aware of Allah. Practicing dhikr is about staying conscious of God's presence and showing love and devotion. The Quran describes Muhammad as the perfect example of dhikr. Some forms of dhikr are required for all Muslims and do not need Sufi training or approval.

Dhikr practices can vary among Sufi groups. Some Sufi orders hold ritualized ceremonies called sema, which include singing, dancing, music, and incense. The most famous example is the Sufi whirling of the Mevlevi order, where dancers spin in circles as a form of worship.

Some Sufi groups place great importance on dhikr, especially a practice called Dhikr-e-Qulb, where followers imagine Allah written on their hearts.

Muraqaba is a practice similar to meditation in other religions. In the Naqshbandi tradition, it involves focusing the mind on spiritual matters.

Sufi whirling, or spinning, is a form of meditation practiced by the Mevlevi order. Dervishes spin in circles during sema to symbolize the movement of planets around the Sun. This act represents letting go of personal desires and focusing on God.

According to Mevlevi practitioners, most traditional Sunni Sufi groups, like the Qadiriyya and Chisti orders, believe that dancing during dhikr or sema is not allowed.

Orthodox Sunni scholars and Sufi groups have generally forbidden the use of musical instruments, except for the Daf. However, some Sufi saints allowed music under certain conditions, such as avoiding female voices. Today, music is commonly used in Sufi practices.

Qawwali is a type of Sufi devotional music that originated in South Asia. It was popularized by the Sufi saint Amir Khusrau in the 13th century, who combined Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and Indian musical styles. Qawwali songs are categorized into types like hamd, na'at, and ghazal. Today, performances last 15 to 30 minutes and use instruments like the harmonium and tabla. The Pakistani musician Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan helped spread Qawwali globally.

Saints

The Arabic word "walī" (plural "awliyāʾ") means "custodian," "protector," "helper," or "friend." In common Muslim usage, it refers to an Islamic saint, also called a "friend of God." In traditional Islamic beliefs, a saint is someone who receives special divine favor and holiness, chosen by God and given gifts like the ability to perform miracles. Islamic scholars introduced the idea of saints early in Muslim history, using parts of the Quran and hadith as evidence for their existence.

Early Muslim writings about saints were created during the rise of Sufism, a spiritual practice in Islam. Many of the first recognized saints in Sunni Islam were Sufi mystics, such as Hasan of Basra, Farqad Sabakhi, Dawud Tai, Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya, Ma'ruf al-Karkhi, and Junayd of Baghdad. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, the veneration of saints became widespread, especially after Sufism organized into groups called "orders" or "brotherhoods." During this time, saints were seen as spiritual teachers whose wisdom was passed on to followers.

In popular Sufism, visiting the tombs of saints, scholars, and righteous people is a common practice. This is especially true in South Asia, where famous tombs include those of Sayyid Ali Hamadani in Kulob, Tajikistan; Afāq Khoja near Kashgar, China; Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sindh; Ali Hujwari in Lahore, Pakistan; Bahauddin Zakariya in Multan, Pakistan; Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India; Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India; and Shah Jalal in Sylhet, Bangladesh.

In Fes, Morocco, the Zaouia Moulay Idriss II is a popular site for pilgrimages. People also visit the current leader of the Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi, during the yearly Mawlid celebration, which is often shown on Moroccan National television. This practice has been criticized by Salafis, a group that follows strict interpretations of Islam.

In Islamic mysticism, "karamat" (Arabic: karāmāt) refers to supernatural actions performed by Muslim saints. These actions may include predicting the future or revealing hidden thoughts. Historically, believing in the miracles of saints ("karāmāt al-awliyāʾ") has been considered important in Sunni Islam.

A "dargah" (Persian: dargâh) is a shrine built over the grave of a respected religious figure, often a Sufi saint. Sufis visit these shrines for "ziyarat," a type of pilgrimage. Dargahs often include spaces for prayer, religious education, community meetings, and even hospitals. They may also have rooms for Sufi gatherings called "khanqah" or hospices.

Theoretical perspectives

Traditional Islamic scholars have identified two main branches within Sufism. These branches help explain the different methods used by Sufi teachers and spiritual traditions.

One branch focuses on moving from the signs of God to the source of those signs. In this path, a person begins by cleansing their lower self of harmful influences that prevent them from seeing all of creation as the work of God. This approach is followed by Imam Al-Ghazali and most Sufi orders.

The other branch moves from the source of signs to the signs themselves. Here, a person experiences a strong spiritual pull toward God and begins their journey with a vision of the ultimate goal of Sufism: directly sensing the presence of God. This does not replace the effort to purify the heart, as in the first branch, but starts from a different beginning. This path is mainly practiced by the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.

Some modern scholars also recognize a third branch, linked to the Ottoman scholar Said Nursi. His teachings, found in his Quran commentary called the Risale-i Nur, emphasize strict following of the example of Prophet Muhammad, believing this path provides a complete spiritual practice for those without a Sufi teacher.

Sufism has greatly influenced many areas of thought. For example, the concept of "subtle centers" (called Lataif-e-sitta) explains how spiritual intuition develops. These centers are believed to be purified in a specific order to help a person complete their spiritual journey. A summary of this system was written by Muhammad Emin Er.

Sufi ideas about the mind and spirit have influenced thinking inside and outside of Islam. These ideas are based on three main parts of the human being: the nafs (the lower self or ego), the qalb (the spiritual heart), and the ruh (the soul). These parts interact in different ways, leading to different spiritual types: someone ruled by the ego, someone guided by the heart, or someone deeply connected to God through the soul.

Robert Frager, a Sufi teacher in the Jerrahi order, has played a key role in spreading Sufi psychology in the West. Frager was a trained psychologist from the United States who converted to Islam through his study of Sufism and wrote many works on Sufism and psychology.

Sufi ideas about the universe and the nature of reality are also important areas of intellectual achievement.

Prominent Sufis

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Rābiʼa al-ʼAdawiyya, also known as Rabia Basri, was a Sufi saint and one of the earliest Sufi mystics from Iraq. She was born into a very poor family, but later she was captured by bandits and sold into slavery. She was, however, set free by her master when he saw a light shining above her head one night. Hasan of Basra, a prominent Sufi leader, once said, "I spent one whole night and day with Rabi'a… it never occurred to me that I was a man nor did it occur to her that she was a woman… when I saw her, I saw myself as bankrupt and Rabi'a as truly sincere." Rabi'a al-Adawiyya is known for her teachings and her belief that the love of God is the most important part of a holy life. She is said to have proclaimed, running down the streets of Basra, Iraq:

There are different opinions about where Rabia Basri died and where she was buried. Some believe she is buried in Jerusalem, while others believe she is buried in Basra.

Junayd al-Baghdadi (830–910) was one of the early Sufis. He was a Persian Sufi and one of the most famous early Islamic saints. He is a central figure in the spiritual traditions of many Sufi orders. Junayd al-Baghdadi taught in Baghdad throughout his life and was an important figure in the development of Sufi beliefs. Like Hasan of Basra before him, he was widely respected by his students and disciples and was often quoted by other mystics. Because of his importance among Sufis, Junayd was often called the "Sultan."

Bayazid Bastami was a well-known and influential Sufi from the Tayfuriyya order. He was born in 804 in Bastam. Bayazid is known for his deep devotion to the Sunnah and his commitment to the basic principles and practices of Islam.

Shaykh Abdul Qadir Gilani (1077–1166) was a Hanbali jurist and a prominent Sufi scholar from Mesopotamia with Persian roots. He was born in Na'if, a town near Baghdad. There, he studied Hanbali law. He received lessons in fiqh from Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi, lessons in hadith from Abu Bakr ibn Muzaffar, and lessons in tafsir from Abu Muhammad Ja'far, a commentator. His Sufi spiritual teacher was Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas. After completing his education, Gilani left Baghdad and spent twenty-five years as a reclusive wanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127, he returned to Baghdad and began to preach publicly. He joined the teaching staff of the school belonging to his teacher, Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi, and was popular with students. In the morning, he taught hadith and tafsir, and in the afternoon, he held discussions on the science of the heart and the virtues of the Quran. He is the founder of the Qadiriyya order, which is named after his patronym.

Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili (died 1258) was the founder of the Shadhiliyya order and introduced dhikr jahri, which is the loud remembrance of God, as opposed to the silent dhikr. He taught that his followers should be grateful for what God has given them, rather than denying themselves and destroying the ego. His order is called the "Order of Gratitude" (Tariqush-Shukr). Imam Shadhili also gave his followers eighteen valuable hizbs (litanies), one of which, the Hizb al-Bahr, is still recited worldwide today.

Moinuddin Chishti (1141–1236), known as Gharīb Nawāz ("Benefactor of the Poor"), was the most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order. He introduced and established the order in the Indian subcontinent. The spiritual chain of the Chishti order in India, which includes Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, and Nizamuddin Auliya, consists of some of the greatest Sufi saints in Indian history. Moinuddin Chishtī turned towards India, reportedly after a dream in which Muhammad blessed him to do so. After a short stay in Lahore, he reached Ajmer with Sultan Shahāb-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori and settled there. In Ajmer, he attracted a large following and gained great respect among the city's residents. Moinuddin Chishtī practiced the Sufi concept of Sulh-e-Kul (peace to all) to promote understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims.

Bahauddin Naqshband (1318–1389) was a prominent Sufi master of the 14th century who founded the Naqshbandi Sufi order. He was born in the village of Qasr-i Hinduvan near Bukhara, Uzbekistan, and was a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. His early life was marked by a strong spiritual inclination. He sought guidance from renowned Sufi teachers and quickly showed exceptional talent and understanding. His main teacher was Mohammad Baba As-Samasi, who initiated him into the spiritual path. His approach to Sufism emphasized inner contemplation, discipline, and a focus on the unseen. He advocated for a balanced lifestyle, combining spiritual practices with worldly responsibilities. His teachings were based on the Quran and the Sunnah, and he emphasized the importance of following the example of the Prophet Muhammad.

The Naqshbandi order became one of the most influential Sufi orders in Islamic history. It spread throughout Central Asia, the Middle East, and eventually to South Asia and the West. The order's emphasis on spiritual discipline, inner work, and social engagement resonated with many seekers.

Ahmed Tijani (1737–1815), in Arabic known as Sidi Ahmed Tijani, was the founder of the Tijaniyya Sufi order. He was born into a Berber family in Aïn Madhi, present-day Algeria, and died at the age of 78 in Fez.

Al-Ghazali (c. 1058 – 1111) was a Persian polymath. He was a prominent Sufi, jurisconsult, legal theoretician, mufti, philosopher, theologian, logician, and mystic. He is considered to be the 11th century's mujaddid, a renewer of the faith, who appears once every 100 years. Al-Ghazali's works were so highly respected by his contemporaries that he was given the honorific title "Proof of Islam." He was a prominent mujtahid in the Shafi'i school of law. His most important work was Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm ad-dīn ("The Revival of the Religious Sciences"). His other works include Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers"), a significant work in the history of philosophy.

Sayyid Badiuddin was a Sufi saint who founded the Madariyya Silsila and order. He was also known by the title Qutb-ul-Madar. He was originally from Syria and was born in Aleppo to a Syed Hussaini family. His teacher was Bayazid Tayfur al-Bistami. After making a pilgrimage to Medina, he traveled to India to spread the Islamic faith, where he founded the Madariyya order. His tomb is located in Makanpur.

Ibn 'Arabi (or Ibn al-'Arabi) (AH 561 – AH 638; 1165–1240) was one of the most influential Sufis, known for his deep spiritual insight and profound knowledge of God. He was honored with the title "The Grand Master" (Arabic: Sheikh al-Akbar). Ibn Arabi founded the Sufi order known as "Al Akbariyya" (Arabic: al-Akbariyya), which is still active today. The order, based in Cairo, continues to spread his teachings and principles through its own sheikh. Ibn Arabi's writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-Hikam, have been studied within all Sufi orders as the clearest expression of tawhid (Divine Unity). His teachings later became known as the school of wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). He believed his writings were divinely inspired. As he told one of his close disciples, his legacy is that "you should never abandon your servant-hood (ubudiyya), and that there may never be in your soul a longing."

Notable Sufi works

Among the most well-known Sufi writings are:

• Al-Ta'arruf li-Madhhab Ahl al-Tasawwuf [ar] (The Exploration of the Path of Sufis) by Abu Bakr al-Kalabadhi (died around 990 CE). This book was highly valued by 'Umar al-Suhrawardi (died 1234 CE), who said that without this work, people would know little about Sufism.

• Qūt al-Qulūb [ar] (Nourishment of the Hearts) by Abu Talib al-Makki (died around 996 CE). This detailed guide on Sufism, which is the Islamic mystical tradition, greatly influenced al-Ghazali’s Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences).

• Hilyat al-Awliya wa Tabaqat al-Asfiya (The Ornament of God's Friends and Generations of Pure Ones) by Abu Na'im al-Isfahani (died around 1038 CE). This long book includes stories about Sufis and other early Muslim religious leaders.

• Al-Risala al-Qushayriyya (The Qushayrian Treatise) by al-Qushayri (died around 1072 CE). This essential book for studying Islamic mysticism has been a main textbook for Sufi students for many years.

• Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Sciences of Religion) by al-Ghazali (died around 1111 CE). This book is considered one of the most complete works on Muslim beliefs and practices. It aims to bring new life to religious discussions in Islam.

• Al-Ghunya li-Talibi Tariq al-Haqq [ar] (Sufficient Provision for Seekers of the Path of the Truth) by 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (died around 1166 CE). This book was translated into English for the first time by Muhtar Holland.

• 'Awarif al-Ma'arif [de] (The Gifts of Spiritual Perceptions) by Shihab al-Din 'Umar al-Suhrawardi (died around 1234 CE). This was a widely read Sufi book in its time and later became a standard textbook for new Sufi students across the Islamic world.

• Al-Hikam al-'Ata'iyya [ar] (The Aphorisms of Ibn 'Ata' Allah) by Ibn 'Ata' Allah al-Sakandari (died around 1309 CE). This collection includes 261 short teachings about relationships between humans and God, based on the Qur'an and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad. It covers topics like Islamic monotheism, ethics, and daily behavior.

Sufis have also written books that explain the deeper, hidden meanings of the Qur'an. Examples include:

• Tafsir al-Qu'ran al-'Azim [ar] (Interpretation of the Great Qur'an) by Sahl al-Tustari (died around 896 CE). This is the oldest Sufi commentary on the Qur'an.

• Lata'if al-Isharat [ar] (Subtleties of the Allusions) by al-Qushayri (died around 1072 CE).

• 'Ara'is al-Bayan fi Haqa'iq al-Qur'an [ar] (The Brides of Explication Concerning the Hidden Realities of the Qur'an) by Ruzbihan al-Baqli (died around 1209 CE).

• Al-Ta'wilat al-Najmiyya [ar] (Starry Interpretations) by Najm al-Din Kubra (died around 1221 CE). This work was started by Najm al-Din Kubra, continued by his student Najm al-Din Razi (died around 1256 CE), and finished by 'Alā' al-Dawla al-Simnani (died around 1336 CE).

• Ghara'ib al-Qur'an wa Ragha'ib al-Furqan (Wonders of the Qur'an and Desiderata of the Criterion) by Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi (died around 1328 CE).

• Anwar al-Qur'an wa Asrar al-Furqan (Lights of the Qur'an and Secrets of the Criterion) by Mulla 'Ali al-Qari (died around 1606 CE).

• Tafsir Ruh al-Bayan (The Spirit of Explanation in the Commentary on the Qur'an) by Isma'il Haqqi al-Brusawi/Bursevi (died around 1725 CE). He wrote this long commentary over twenty-three years.

• Al-Bahr al-Madeed fi Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Majeed (The Vast Sea in the Interpretation of the Glorious Qur'an) by Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba (died around 1809 CE).

Reception

Sufism and Sufi Muslims have faced problems for many years. These problems include unfair treatment, being forced to stop practicing their beliefs, and violence. For example, Sufi shrines, tombs, and mosques have been destroyed. Some Muslim-majority countries have stopped Sufi groups from working and treated Sufis unfairly. In Turkey, all Sufi groups were banned in 1925 after they opposed the new government. In Iran, Shia Sufis have been troubled because they do not support the government’s idea that a top religious leader should rule the country.

In many Muslim-majority countries, people who follow strict versions of Islam, like Salafism and Wahhabism, have attacked Sufis. These groups believe that certain Sufi practices, such as visiting Sufi saint tombs, celebrating their birthdays, or holding religious ceremonies called dhikr, are not allowed in Islam.

In Egypt, in November 2017, a terrorist attack on a Sufi mosque in Sinai killed at least 305 people and hurt more than 100. Most of the victims were Sufis.

Sufism has long interested people in the West, especially scholars who study other cultures. In the 1700s and 1800s, European scholars treated Sufism and Islam as separate subjects. This led to more focus on translating old Sufi writings than studying how Sufism is practiced today. Some people in the United States now see Sufism as a peaceful and non-political form of Islam. Seyyed Hossein Nasr says these ideas are not correct from the Sufi perspective.

The Islamic Institute in Germany believes Sufism helps promote peace and understanding between different cultures and religions. It sees Sufism as a symbol of kindness and respect. Philip Jenkins, a professor at Baylor University, says Sufis could help create more fairness and democracy in Muslim countries. Some governments, like China and Russia, support Sufism to stop violent groups. The British government, after the 2005 London bombings, also supported Sufi groups to fight extremism. The RAND Corporation, an American research group, suggested the U.S. government work with Sufi groups to oppose violent ideas. News organizations like the BBC and The Economist also believe Sufism can help reduce violence among Muslims.

Idries Shah says Sufism is not limited to any one religion and existed before Islam and Christianity. He quotes Sufi scholars who compared Sufism to ideas in Hinduism and other traditions. However, modern scholars do not agree with Shah’s views. Some groups in Western countries allow non-Muslims to learn about Sufism, but some Muslims disagree with this.

Sufism has been compared to the spiritual ideas in some Eastern religions. For example, a 10th-century scholar named Al-Biruni wrote about similarities between Sufism and Hinduism. Other scholars have compared Sufi ideas like Waḥdat al-Wujūd to Hindu concepts, and Fanaa to meditation. Some Sufi leaders, like Bayazid Bostami, included ideas from Hinduism in their teachings. Inayat Khan said Sufis believe in a God who is not tied to any religion.

Stories from Buddhism were shared in Sufi circles. One story tells about blind men trying to describe an elephant.

There is evidence that Sufism influenced Jewish philosophy. A Jewish book called Chovot HaLevavot (Duties of the Heart) was inspired by Sufi writings. This book discusses similar ideas to those in Sufi texts. A Jewish scholar named Abraham Maimonides, the son of Maimonides, wrote a book called Kitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn, which praised Sufism. His followers created a Jewish-Sufi tradition that lasted for many years. They practiced spiritual retreats, fasting, and other Sufi methods.

The Jewish Encyclopedia mentions that Jewish mysticism in Muslim countries was influenced by Sufism.

Culture

The 13th-century Persian poet Rumi is seen as one of the most important figures in Sufism and one of the greatest poets in history. His works have become widely read in the United States, largely because of the translations by Coleman Barks. Elif Şafak’s novel The Forty Rules of Love tells a story about Rumi’s meeting with the Persian dervish Shams Tabrizi.

Muhammad Iqbal, a famous Urdu poet, wrote about Sufism, philosophy, and Islam in his English work The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam.

Sama is an important practice in many Sufi groups. In South Asia, it is most closely linked to the Chishti Order. This practice became a special art form during the time of Khwaja Amir Khusrau and other Sufi leaders like Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya. Sufis used Sama to listen to poetry and Islamic mystical verses, often with musical instruments, to experience spiritual joy and a deep connection to Allah and His Prophet.

Many painters and artists have created works inspired by Sufi themes. A notable example is a large painting in the Brooklyn Museum’s Islamic gallery. The artwork, created by Abbas Al-Musavi in the 19th or early 20th century, shows the Battle of Karbala. This event was a violent conflict between the Sunni and Shia branches of Islam. During the battle, Husayn ibn Ali, a pious grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, was killed and is honored as a martyr in Islam.

In July 2016, at the International Sufi Festival in Noida Film City, India, H.E. Abdul Basit, then Pakistan’s High Commissioner to India, spoke during an exhibition by Farkhananda Khan ‘Fida.’ He said, “There is no need for words to explain the paintings. They carry a message of brotherhood and peace in Sufism.”

Scientific research

A review of research published in 2023 looked at how Islamic-Sufi spirituality affects mental health, showing a positive link between Sufi practices and lower levels of anxiety and depression in patients.

A study about political Sufism in modern Kazakhstan explored how religious traditions have continued and how Sufi groups influence political activities.

A summary of Sufi studies at American universities showed that Sufism has become an important area of study, with special programs and research centers focusing on its different aspects.

Recent studies of research trends have also shown how ideas in Sufi studies are organized and how interest in the topic has grown worldwide.