Mandaeism, also known as Nasoraeanism or Sabianism, is a religion that includes beliefs from Greek, Iranian, and Jewish traditions. It is a Gnostic religion, meaning it focuses on spiritual knowledge, and it is dualistic, meaning it believes in two opposing forces. The people who follow this religion are called Mandaeans, and they respect many religious figures, including Adam, Abel, Seth, Enos, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptist. Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem, and John the Baptist to be prophets. Adam is seen as the founder of their religion, and John the Baptist is believed to be the greatest and final prophet.
Mandaeans speak a language called Mandaic, which is a type of Eastern Aramaic. The word "Mandaean" comes from the Aramaic word manda, which means "knowledge." In the Middle East, outside of their community, Mandaeans are sometimes called Ṣubba or Sabians. The term Ṣubba is linked to the Aramaic word for "baptism." The term Sabian comes from a religious group mentioned in the Quran. Historically, this group was claimed by Mandaeans and others to belong to the "People of the Book" in order to receive legal protection under Islamic law. Mandaeans are also sometimes called "Christians of Saint John" because of their connection to John the Baptist. However, further research shows this is not accurate, as Mandaeans believe Jesus was a false prophet.
The main belief of Mandaeism is called Nāṣerutā, which means "Nasoraean gnosis" or "divine wisdom." People who follow this belief are called Nāṣorāyi, or Nasoraeans. These Nasoraeans are divided into two groups: tarmidutā, who are priests, and mandāyutā, who are ordinary followers. The word manda means "knowledge," and it is also the source of the term "Mandaean," which describes their entire culture, rituals, and beliefs connected to Nāṣerutā. Mandaeans can also be called Nasoraeans, Gnostics, or Sabians.
Mandaeism has been practiced mainly near the lower Karun, Euphrates, and Tigris rivers, as well as around the Shatt al-Arab waterway in southern Iraq and Khuzestan province in Iran. As of 2007, it is estimated that between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans live worldwide. Before the Iraq War, most Mandaeans lived in Iraq. However, many left the country due to the violence caused by the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the following occupation by U.S. forces. By 2007, the number of Mandaeans in Iraq had dropped to about 5,000.
Mandaeans have remained separate and private throughout history. Information about them and their religion has mostly come from outsiders, such as Julius Heinrich Petermann, an Orientalist; Nicolas Siouffi, a French official; and British anthropologist Lady E. S. Drower. There is also an early, though biased, account by French traveler Jean-Baptiste Tavernier from the 1650s.
Etymology
The English spelling "Mandaeism" is a mistake in spelling that comes from "Mandaism." This word is formed by adding the suffix "-ism" to the word "manda."
The word "Mandaean" comes from the Mandaic term "Mandaiia," which means "Mandaean" in Neo-Mandaic (written as "Mandāʾí" or "Mandāyí," with the plural form "Mandayānā"). This also comes from the word "manda." Scholars who study Semitic languages, such as Mark Lidzbarski and Rudolf Macúch, have compared "manda" to similar words in other Aramaic dialects and translated it as "knowledge." For example, the Aramaic word "mandaʿ" appears in the Bible (Daniel 2:21, 4:31, 33, 5:12), and it is similar to the Hebrew word "madda'," which also means "knowledge." This connection suggests that the Mandaeans may be the only group from late antiquity that still identifies itself as Gnostics.
Origins
According to the Mandaean text called the Haran Gawaita (the Scroll of Great Revelation), which was written between the 4th and 6th centuries, the Nasoraean Mandaeans—followers of John the Baptist—left Jerusalem and moved to Media in the first century CE. This migration is believed to have happened because of religious persecution. The people first traveled to a place called Haran (possibly the modern-day city of Harran in Turkey) or Hauran, then to the hills of Media in Iran, and finally settled in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq). Richard Horsley suggests that "inner Hawran" likely refers to Wadi Hauran in present-day Syria, a region controlled by the Nabataeans. Earlier, the Nabataeans were at war with Herod Antipas, a ruler who had been strongly criticized by the prophet John the Baptist. After John the Baptist condemned Herod, he was executed, which made the Nabataeans more friendly toward groups loyal to John.
Many scholars who study Mandaeism, such as Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, support the historical account of the Mandaeans' migration. However, some scholars believe the group originally came from southwestern Mesopotamia. Others argue that Mandaeism is an older religion, dating back to before the time of Jesus. Mandaeans claim their religion existed before Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. They also believe they are direct descendants of Shem, the son of Noah, and the original followers of John the Baptist in Jerusalem.
History
During the time of the Parthian Empire, the Mandaeans thrived because the rulers protected them. This protection ended when the Sasanian emperor Bahram I became ruler, and his high priest, Kartir, persecuted people who did not follow Zoroastrian beliefs.
Around the year 640, when Muslim forces began conquering Mesopotamia, the leader of the Mandaeans, Anush bar Danqa, is said to have shown Muslim officials a copy of the Ginza Rabba, the Mandaean holy book. He claimed that John the Baptist, also known as Yahya ibn Zakariya in the Quran, was the main Mandaean prophet. This helped identify the Mandaeans as part of the ahl al-kitāb (People of the Book), a group recognized as legal religious minorities in the Muslim Empire. However, this story is likely not true, as it mentions Anush bar Danqa traveling to Baghdad, which was not yet built until 762.
At some point, the Mandaeans were linked to the Sabians, a group mentioned in the Quran alongside Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians as People of the Book. The first clear record of this connection was made by Ḥasan bar Bahlul, who lived around 950 to 1000, citing the Abbasid vizier ibn Muqla, who lived from about 885 to 940. It is unclear whether the Mandaeans of that time called themselves Sabians or if the name was first used by ibn Muqla. Today, Mandaeans are still sometimes referred to as Sabians.
In about 1290, the Catholic Dominican friar Riccoldo da Monte di Croce visited Mesopotamia and met the Mandaeans. He may have been the first European to write about their religion. He described them as believing in a secret law of God written in mysterious texts, rejecting circumcision, honoring John the Baptist more than any other figure, and washing repeatedly to avoid divine punishment.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, members of the Discalced Carmelite mission in Basra called the Mandaeans "Christians of Saint John," based on reports from missionaries like Ignatius of Jesus. Some Portuguese Jesuits also encountered "Saint John Christians" near the Strait of Hormuz in 1559, during a battle between the Portuguese fleet and the Ottoman army in Bahrain.
Beliefs
Mandaeism is the religion of the Mandaean people. It is based on religious beliefs and teachings. Mandaean writings are extensive and cover topics such as beliefs about the afterlife, understanding God, and what happens after death.
According to Brikha Nasoraia:
1. Mandaeans believe in one God, called Hayyi Rabbi, meaning "The Great Life" or "The Great Living." God is symbolized by "Living Water" (Yardena). Because of this, Mandaeans often live near rivers. God represents the force that creates and sustains the universe.
2. Light is a powerful force that gives life. It is personified by Malka d-Nhura ("King of Light"), another name for Hayyi Rabbi. Light is also represented by the uthras, spiritual beings that protect and guide people. The Drabsha is a symbol of Light.
3. Mandaeans believe the soul lives forever. The soul’s future is important, as there is a belief in a next life where people are rewarded or punished. However, punishment is not eternal because God is kind.
According to E. S. Drower, Mandaean Gnosis (special knowledge) has nine key features, similar to other religious groups:
1. A supreme, formless being creates spiritual, invisible, and physical worlds. This being is represented by Archetypal Man, who creates the universe in its own image.
2. Belief in opposing forces: a cosmic Mother and Father, Light and Darkness, and Left and Right. These forces exist in both the universe and within individuals.
3. In the world of ideas, there are opposite versions of things (dmuta).
4. The soul is seen as a traveler, separated from its origin, the supreme being, and must return to it.
5. Planets and stars influence people’s lives and are places where souls go after death.
6. Spiritual beings help the soul during life and after death, guiding it to "worlds of light."
7. Religious symbols and metaphors are used to express ideas.
8. Sacred rituals, called "mysteries," help purify the soul and prepare it for rebirth. These rituals are based on stories and traditions, especially the creation story and the figure of Adam.
9. Only those who are trained and trusted are allowed to learn the full meaning of these beliefs.
Mandaeism has a rich tradition of myths, rituals, and religious interpretations. The creation of the world is explained through the idea of "emanation," where the divine being sends out energy to create the universe.
The most common name for God in Mandaeism is Hayyi Rabbi ("The Great Life" or "The Great Living God"). Other names include Mare d'Rabuta ("Lord of Greatness"), Mana Rabba ("The Great Mind"), Malka d-Nhura ("King of Light"), and Hayyi Qadmaiyi ("The First Life"). Mandaeans believe God is eternal, the creator of all things, and the only ruler who has no equal.
There are many uthras (angels or guardians) who come from light and worship God. Important ones include Manda d-Hayyi, who brings knowledge to Earth, and Hibil Ziwa, who defeats the World of Darkness. Some uthras are called "emanations" and serve "The First Life." Their names include Second Life (Yushamin), Third Life (Abatur), and Fourth Life (Ptahil).
Ptahil, the "Fourth Life," is not the main creator but is responsible for making the material world with the help of Ruha, a spirit seen as negative. The material world is a mix of "light" and "dark." Ptahil is the lowest of three emanations. The other two are Yushamin (Second Life) and Abatur (Third Life). Abatur judges the souls of the dead. Yushamin wanted to create his own world but was punished for opposing the King of Light but later forgiven.
Like the Essenes, Mandaeans do not share the names of their angels with non-Mandaeans.
Mandaeans recognize several prophets. John the Baptist, known as Yuhana Maṣbana or Yuhana bar Zakria, is highly respected. He is seen as a teacher who renewed their faith, tracing it back to Adam. Mandaeans do not consider John the founder of their religion but view him as a messenger of Light and Truth.
Mandaeism does not see Abraham, Moses, or Jesus as prophets. However, it teaches that Abraham and Jesus were originally Mandaean priests. They also recognize figures from Abrahamic religions, such as Adam, his sons Hibil (Abel) and Shitil (Seth), his grandson Anush (Enosh), and others like Nuh (Noah), Sam (Shem), and Ram (Aram) as ancestors. Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem, and John the Baptist as prophets, with Adam as the founder and John as the greatest prophet.
Mandaeans have many religious writings. The most important is the Ginza Rabba, a collection of history, theology, and prayers. It is divided into two parts: the Left Ginza and the Right Ginza. Studies of the Left Ginza show that Mandaeans existed during the late Parthian Empire.
The oldest known texts are lead amulets from around the third century CE, followed by incantation bowls from about 600 CE. Most religious texts were written in the 1600s, 1700s, and 1800s.
Some Mandaean writings may have been passed down orally before being written by scribes, making it hard to determine their exact age or author.
Another important text is the Haran Gawaita, which describes the history of the Mandaeans. It says that a group of Nasoraeans (Mandaean priests) left Judea before the destruction of Jerusalem in the first century CE and settled in the Parthian Empire.
Other key texts include the Qulasta, a prayerbook translated by E. S. Drower, and the Mandaean Book of John, which includes a conversation between John and Jesus. Other writings include the Diwan Abatur, which
Worship and rituals
The two most important ceremonies in Mandaean worship are baptism (Masbuta) and "the ascent" (Masiqta), which is a ceremony for the dead or the soul's journey. In Mandaean belief, baptism is not a one-time event but happens every Sunday, the holy day. It involves full immersion in flowing water, such as rivers called Yardena, which are named after the River Jordan. After baptism, the person is anointed with holy sesame oil and shares sacramental bread and water. The Masiqta ceremony usually includes a special meal to honor the dead and is believed to help souls move through purgatory to the World of Light.
Other purification rituals include Rishama and Tamasha, which do not require a priest. Rishama is performed before prayers and involves washing the face and limbs while reciting prayers. It is done daily before sunrise, after using the restroom, or before religious events, similar to Islamic wudu. Tamasha involves three immersions in a river and is performed by women after menstruation or childbirth, and by anyone after sexual activity, touching a dead body, or other similar events, similar to Jewish tevilah. Purification also applies to food, tools, clothing, and animals used for rituals or eating. A dying person is bathed with river water sprinkled three times over their body from head to feet.
A Mandaean place of worship, called a Beth Manda or Mashkhanna, must be built near a river to allow baptism, as water is central to their faith. Some modern Mashkhanas have indoor baths. These places are decorated with a drabsha, a cross-shaped banner made of olive wood covered with white silk and seven myrtle branches. The drabsha does not represent the Christian cross. Instead, its four arms symbolize the four corners of the universe, the silk represents God's light, and the seven myrtle branches stand for the seven days of creation.
Mandaeans believe in marriage and family life, valuing ethical living. Polygyny is allowed but rare. They are peaceful and equal in treatment, with historical records showing women as scribes and priests. Circumcision is forbidden because they believe the body is complete as created. They avoid strong alcohol and most red meat, but if they eat meat, it must be slaughtered properly. Some Mandaeans were originally vegetarian. Fasting is called sauma.
Mandaean graves are oriented north to south, so the deceased face north if standing. They also pray three times daily, facing north, and these prayers are called brakha. Almsgiving, or Zidqa, is practiced by laypeople who give offerings to priests.
Priests
In Mandaeism, there is a clear difference between the regular members of the community, called the laity, and the priests. According to E. S. Drower (The Secret Adam, p. ix), there are three levels of priesthood: the tarmidia (Neo-Mandaic tarmidānā), meaning "disciples"; the ganzibria (Neo-Mandaic ganzeḇrānā), meaning "treasurers" (from Old Persian ganza-bara); and the rišama (Neo-Mandaic rišama), meaning "leader of the people." The term ganzeḇrā first appears in religious texts from Persepolis, dating to around the third century BCE. It may be connected to the Elamite title kapnuskir, used for rulers of Elymais (modern Khuzestan) during the Hellenistic period. Traditionally, a ganzeḇrā who baptizes seven or more ganzeḇrānā may become a rišama. Today, the rišama of the Mandaean community in Iraq is Sattar Jabbar Hilo al-Zahrony, and in Australia, it is Salah Chohaili.
The modern priesthood began in the early 1800s. In 1831, a cholera outbreak in Shushtar, Iran, caused widespread suffering and likely killed most of the Mandaean religious leaders there. Two surviving acolytes, Yahia Bihram and Ram Zihrun, later helped rebuild the priesthood in Suq al-Shuyukh using their training and available religious texts.
In 2009, about 24 Mandaean priests existed worldwide. However, the Mandaean Society in America reports that the number of priests has increased in recent years.
Scholarship
According to Edmondo Lupieri, as written in his article in Encyclopædia Iranica, "The possible historical connection with John the Baptist, as found in newly translated Mandaean texts, led many scholars, including R. Bultmann, to believe that Mandaean traditions could provide new insights into the history of John and the beginnings of Christianity. This idea revived the nearly forgotten theory that early Christianity may have roots in Israel. Archaeological findings, such as Mandaean incantation bowls and lead amulets, showed that Mandaeans lived in southern Mesopotamia before the rise of Islam. This discovery forced scholars to suggest that Mandaeans may have left Israel due to persecution by Jews or Christians." Lupieri believes Mandaeism is a Gnostic religious group that developed in southern Mesopotamia after Christianity began and claims that Zazai d-Gawazta founded Mandaeism in the second century. Jorunn J. Buckley disagrees, pointing out that scribes who lived before Zazai copied the Ginza Rabba, a key Mandaean text. Christa Müller-Kessler also argues against the idea that Mandaeans originated in Israel, stating they are from Mesopotamia. Edwin Yamauchi suggests Mandaeism began in Transjordan, where a group of non-Jews moved to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with local traditions by the end of the second century CE. Kevin van Bladel claims Mandaeism started no earlier than the fifth century in Sassanid Mesopotamia, but this idea has been criticized by James F. McGrath.
Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, supports a theory that modern Mandaeans are descended from two groups: one from the Jordan Valley of Israel and another from southern Mesopotamia. He believes these groups merged to form the Mandaeans of today.
Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower, Eric Segelberg, James F. McGrath, Charles G. Häberl, Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, and Şinasi Gündüz argue that Mandaeans have Israelite origins. Most believe Mandaeans may be connected to John the Baptist’s followers. Charles Häberl, who studies Mandaic language, notes influences from Jewish Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, and suggests Mandaeans share a history with Jews. Other scholars, including Richard August Reitzenstein, Rudolf Bultmann, G. R. S. Mead, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, Gilles Quispel, and K. Beyer, also support the idea that Mandaeans originated in Judea, Palestine, or the Jordan Valley. James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe Mandaeism is directly linked to early Israelite religious traditions. Ethel S. Drower states that early Christianity may have developed from Mandaean beliefs and suggests that some forms of Gnostic Judaism existed before Christianity. Barbara Thiering questions the dates of the Dead Sea Scrolls and proposes that the Teacher of Righteousness, a leader of the Essenes, may have been John the Baptist. Jorunn J. Buckley agrees that Mandaeism has Israelite or Judean origins.
Other names
During the 9th and 10th centuries, several religious groups were connected to the Sabians, a mysterious group mentioned in the Quran alongside Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians. The Quran suggests the Sabians were part of the "People of the Book" (ahl al-kitāb). Religious groups that claimed to be Sabians included the Mandaeans, as well as some pagan groups in Harran (Upper Mesopotamia) and the marshlands of southern Iraq. These groups used the name "Sabian" to gain recognition from Muslim leaders as a protected group (dhimma). The earliest clear use of the term "Sabian" for the Mandaeans was by al-Hasan ibn Bahlul, who lived around 950–1000, citing the Abbasid vizier Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla (c. 885–940). It is unclear, however, whether the Mandaeans of that time called themselves Sabians or if the claim came from Ibn Muqla.
Some modern scholars believe the Sabians in the Quran were Mandaeans, though other possibilities have been suggested. Many scholars say it is difficult to confirm the Sabians' original identity with certainty. Mandaeans are still referred to as Sabians today.
The Haran Gawaita called the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem "Nasoraeans," meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge. Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Rudolf Macúch, Mark Lidzbarski, Ethel S. Drower, and James F. McGrath link the Mandaeans to the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius, a group within the Essenes according to Joseph Lightfoot. Epiphanius wrote (29:6) that the Nasaraeans existed before Christ. Some scholars question this claim, while others accept that the Nasaraeans had origins before the time of Christ.
— Epiphanius's Panarion 1:18
Relations with other groups
The Elkesaites were a religious group that practiced baptism for purification. They lived in the Transjordan region and were active from about 100 to 400 CE. Like the Mandaeans, they believed in secret knowledge and performed many baptisms. The group was named after their leader, Elkesai.
A religious writer named Epiphanius, who lived in the 4th century CE, described two groups within the Essenes: the Ossaeans and the Nasaraeans. He wrote about them in his work called Panarion.
The Essenes were a Jewish religious group during the time of the Second Temple, which lasted from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. They focused on spiritual practices and lived together in communities.
Early Mandaean religious ideas and terms appear in ancient writings called the Dead Sea Scrolls. In Mandaeism, the name of baptismal water is "Yardena" (Jordan). A Mandaean name for God is "Mara d-Rabuta," which means "Lord of Greatness." This name appears in an ancient text called the Genesis Apocryphon. Another Mandaean term, "bhiria zidqa," means "elect of righteousness" and is found in the Book of Enoch. Mandaeans believe they are descendants of John the Baptist’s followers and share similarities with the Essenes. Both groups avoided sharing names of angels with non-believers. Essene and Mandaean graves were aligned north to south, so the deceased would face north if standing upright. Mandaeans also practiced vegetarianism and were pacifists, like the Essenes.
In Mandaean texts, the bit manda (house of the Manda) is called "the Great building of Truth" or "house of Perfection." Similar phrases appear in Essene writings from Qumran, such as the Community Rule.
The Bana'im were a small Jewish group that split from the Essenes in the 2nd century CE. They focused on keeping their clothing clean, avoiding even small stains before baptizing. Scholars debate the meaning of their name. Some think it relates to studying the creation of the world, while others believe it refers to workers using tools like axes and shovels. Another theory suggests the name comes from the Greek word for "bath," linking them to groups like the Hemerobaptists, who practiced daily baptism.
The Hemerobaptists, also called Tovelei Shaḥarit, were a religious group that practiced baptism every day. They may have been part of the Essenes. John the Baptist and his followers were called Hemerobaptists in ancient writings. Mandaeans share similarities with them because both groups practiced frequent baptism and believed they were followers of John the Baptist.
The Maghāriya were a Jewish group that lived in the 1st century BCE. They stored their religious writings in caves in Israel. They believed God was too holy to create the world directly, so an angel, similar to the Mandaean Ptahil, was responsible for creation. Some scholars think the Maghāriya were related to the Essenes or another group called the Therapeutae.
According to the scholar R.J. Zwi Werblowsky, Mandaeism shares ideas with Kabbalah, a Jewish mystical tradition, such as linking the alphabet to the creation of the world. Mandaean names for spiritual beings appear in Jewish magical texts. For example, the name "Abatur" is found in a Jewish magic bowl.
The Fihrist of ibn al-Nadim, an ancient Islamic text, states that Mani, the founder of Manichaeism, was raised in the Elkesaite sect. This was confirmed by the Cologne Mani Codex. Manichaean writings no longer exist in full, but some fragments may be connected to Mandaean texts like the Ginza Rabba. Mani later left the Elkesaites to start his own religion. A scholar named Torgny Säve-Söderbergh found that Mani’s Psalms of Thomas closely resemble Mandaean texts, suggesting Manichaeism borrowed ideas from Mandaeism.
Scholars like Magris believe some Samaritan Baptist groups were followers of John the Baptist. These groups included leaders like Dositheus, Simon Magus, and Menander. They taught that the world was created by angels who did not fully understand their role. Their baptism rituals helped people overcome the effects of sin and natural death. Samaritan leaders were seen as spiritual guides who revealed "true knowledge."
The Simonians were a religious group centered on Simon Magus, a figure in the Bible who was criticized for his teachings. Some early Christian writers linked Simon Magus to other groups, but these connections may not be accurate. Simon’s follower, Menander, was associated with a later religious movement called Valentinianism.
Scholars like Kurt Rudolph and Birger A. Pearson have found similarities between Mandaean texts and ancient Gnostic writings, such as those in the Nag Hammadi library. For example, the "Five Seals" in Sethian texts may refer to a ritual involving five baptisms, similar to Mandaean practices. Valentinian Gnostics in Rome and Alexandria adopted Mandaean baptismal formulas in the 2nd century CE.
A scholar named Artur Rodziewicz compared Yezidi beliefs about the world’s creation to Mandaean ideas. Both traditions share concepts about the Peacock Angel (Tawûsî Melek), a central deity in Yezidism.
Demographics
There are between 60,000 and 100,000 Mandaeans worldwide. Many have left their home countries because of the Iraq War, moving to places like Iran, Syria, and Jordan. About 2,500 Mandaeans live in Jordan.
In 2011, a news source called Al Arabiya reported that as many as 60,000 Iranian Mandaeans in Iran were not officially recorded. A 2009 article in The Holland Sentinel said the number of Mandaeans in Iran has decreased, with between 5,000 and 10,000 people remaining.
Many Mandaeans now live outside the Middle East in countries such as Sweden, the Netherlands, Germany, the United States, Canada, New Zealand, the UK, and especially Australia. Around 10,000 Mandaeans live in Australia, mostly near Sydney, which is about 15% of the total global Mandaean population.
About 1,000 Iranian Mandaeans moved to the United States after the US government gave them refugee protection in 2002. Iraqi Mandaeans also received refugee status in 2007. A group of about 2,500 Mandaeans lives in Worcester, Massachusetts, where they started moving in 2008. Most of them came from Iraq.
Mandaeism does not allow people to join the religion through conversion. The religious status of Mandaeans who marry someone outside the faith and their children is not clearly defined.