The Picts were a group of people who lived in what is now Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth, during the Early Middle Ages. Information about where they lived and details about their culture comes from early medieval writings and carved stones. The name "Picti" first appeared in written records as a name used by others in the late third century AD. They are believed to have been descendants of the Caledonii and other northern Iron Age tribes. Their territory is now called "Pictland" by modern historians. At first, their area was made up of several smaller groups, but by the seventh century, it was ruled by the Pictish kingdom of Fortriu. During this time of Fortriu's rule, the Picts began to use the name "Picti" as their own name. This lasted about 160 years until the Pictish kingdom joined with the kingdom of Dál Riata to form the Kingdom of Alba, which was ruled by the House of Alpin. The idea of "Pictish kingship" continued for a short time but was later stopped during the reign of Caustantín mac Áeda.
Pictish society was similar to other early medieval societies in northern Europe and shared traits with nearby groups. Archaeological findings give some clues about their culture. Medieval writings mention a Pictish language, which was an Insular Celtic language related to the Brittonic language spoken by the Celtic Britons to the south. Over time, the Pictish language was replaced by Middle Gaelic as part of a larger shift toward Gaelic culture starting in the late ninth century. Much of what is known about the Picts comes from outside sources, such as the writings of Bede, religious stories about saints like Columba by Adomnán, and Irish historical records.
Definitions
Over recent decades, scholars have reevaluated the idea of "Pictishness." In the early 1900s, many believed the Picts were mysterious "lost people." A 1955 book, The Problem of the Picts, noted that studying the Picts was difficult because archaeological and historical records often disagreed with assumptions about ancient peoples. Later, the dominant method of studying history, called the culture-historical paradigm, was replaced by a newer approach known as processual archaeology (or the New Archaeology). Scholars have also reexamined writings from the 7th and 8th centuries, such as those by Bede and Adomnán. These texts describe events from earlier times, but modern research shows they often use symbolic or fictional storytelling. Their true value lies in reflecting the time periods when they were written.
Challenges in understanding Pictish history and archaeology come from the fact that the people called "Picts" were a diverse group with little shared culture. Scholars caution against using the "Ethnic Fallacy," a term coined by historian Gilbert Márkus, which refers to assuming ancient groups had uniform identities. The people known as "Picts" by outsiders in late antiquity were different from those who later used the name, especially in language, culture, religion, and politics.
The term "Pict" first appeared in Roman writings by the late third century AD to describe non-Roman people in northern Britain. The word was likely negative, highlighting their perceived differences from the Britons under Roman rule. Scholar James Fraser argued that the term "Pict" probably had no meaning to the people it described. He suggested the term was adopted as an endonym (a name used by the group itself) only in the late 7th century, during the rule of the Verturian hegemony, centered in Fortriu (modern-day Inverness and Moray), especially after the Battle of Dun Nechtain. However, other scholars, such as Gordon Noble and Nicholas Evans, believe it is possible, though not certain, that "Picts" was used as an endonym by northern Britons near Rome as early as the 4th century.
Most written records about the Picts date to the 7th century and later. Irish annalists and scholars like Bede used "Picts" to describe people under the Verturian hegemony, which included much of northern Scotland north of the Forth-Clyde isthmus but excluded areas controlled by the Dál Riata in the west. To the south were the Brittonic kingdom of Strathclyde, and Lothian was ruled by Northumbrian Angles. The term "Picts" remained a descriptive label until the 9th century, when the Alpínid dynasty formed and the Pictish kingdom merged with Dál Riata.
Etymology
The Latin word Picti first appears in a formal speech praising someone, called a panegyric, written in 297. It is most often explained as meaning "painted," based on the Latin word pingere ("to paint") and pictus ("painted"), similar to the Greek word pyktis ("picture"). This is believed to refer to the practice of tattooing. In a description of the Roman general Stilicho, written around 404, the writer Claudian mentions designs on the bodies of dying Picts, likely referring to tattoos or body paint. In the early seventh century, Isidore of Seville noted that the Picts continued this practice. Another possibility is that the Latin term Picti came from a native word, possibly linked to the Gallic group called the Pictones.
The Picts were known as Cruithni in Old Irish and Prydyn in Old Welsh. These words are similar, coming from the ancient Celtic term kwritu ("form"), which also connects to the name Pretania (Britain). The word Pretani (and thus Cruithni and Prydyn) was probably used as a general term for people living in Britain. This is similar to how the Gaelic name Alba (Scotland) originally described people from Britain. Some scholars suggest the Picts may have called themselves Albidosi or Albidosorum, names found in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba during the reign of Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, along with a term that is not well understood, Nainndisi.
Origins
The origin story in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People describes the Picts as people from Scythia who arrived by chance on the northern coast of Ireland. Local leaders from the Scoti people guided them to northern Britain, where they settled and married women from the Scoti. The Pictish Chronicle repeats this story and adds that the mythical founder was named Cruithne (a Gaelic word meaning "Pict"), followed by his seven sons. Their names match the seven provinces of Pictland: Circin, Fidach, Fortriu, Fotla (Atholl), Cat, Ce, and Fib. Bede's account is widely understood to be a fictional story created for literary purposes, likely written by the Picts around 700. It follows a structure similar to origin myths of other groups and aimed to support the unification of Pictish lands under Fortriu and the formation of a larger Pictland.
A 2023 study analyzed the complete genomes of eight people linked to the Pictish period, found in cemeteries at Lundin Links in Fife and Balintore, Easter Ross. The study found that Pictish genomes share similarities with Iron Age Britons and modern people in western Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Northumbria. These findings support the idea that the Picts originated locally, rather than from outside regions.
History
The area where the Picts lived was described by Roman writers and geographers as the home of the Caledonii. These Romans also used other names for the tribes in that region, such as Verturiones, Taexali, and Venicones.
Written records about the Picts as a people begin in the Early Middle Ages. During this time, the Gaels of Dál Riata controlled what is now Argyll as part of a kingdom that connected Britain and Ireland. The Angles of Bernicia, which later joined with Deira to form Northumbria, took control of nearby British kingdoms. For much of the 7th century, Northumbria was the strongest kingdom in Britain. The Picts were likely under Northumbria’s control until the reign of Bridei mac Beli, when the Angles suffered a defeat at the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685, stopping their expansion northward. Northumbria continued to rule southern Scotland for the rest of the Pictish period.
Dál Riata was ruled by the Pictish king Óengus mac Fergusa (729–761). Although Dál Riata had its own kings starting in the 760s, it did not regain full independence from the Picts. A later Pictish king, Caustantín mac Fergusa (793–820), placed his son Domnall on the throne of Dál Riata (811–835). Pictish efforts to control the Britons of Alt Clut (Strathclyde) were not successful.
The Viking Age brought major changes to Britain and Ireland, including Scotland. Vikings conquered and settled parts of the islands and mainland areas such as Caithness, Sutherland, and Galloway. In the middle of the 9th century, Ketil Flatnose is said to have founded the Kingdom of the Isles, which governed many of these areas. By the end of the century, the Vikings destroyed the Kingdom of Northumbria, weakened the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and established the Kingdom of York. In a major battle in 839, Vikings killed the King of Fortriu, Eógan mac Óengusa, the King of Dál Riata, Áed mac Boanta, and many others. In the years that followed, Kenneth MacAlpin (Medieval Gaelic: Cináed mac Ailpín) became king of the Picts in the 840s.
During the reign of Cínaed’s grandson, Caustantín mac Áeda (900–943), people outside the region began to call the area the Kingdom of Alba instead of the Kingdom of the Picts. It is unclear whether this was because a new kingdom was formed or because Alba was a better match for the Pictish name for their people. However, while the Pictish language did not vanish suddenly, a process of Gaelic influence (which may have started many years earlier) was clearly happening during the time of Caustantín and his successors.
By a certain point, likely during the 11th century, all people in northern Alba had fully adopted Gaelic language and culture, and Pictish identity was no longer remembered. Henry of Huntingdon was one of the first (surviving) historians to note this change in the mid-12th century in his work Historia Anglorum. Later, the idea of the Picts as a tribe was revived in myths and legends.
Kings and kingdoms
The early history of Pictland is not clearly known. Later, many kings ruled separate kingdoms, with one or two kings often having more power than others. A 13th-century document called De Situ Albanie, the 11th-century Duan Albanach, the Pictish Chronicle, and Irish legends have been used to suggest there were seven Pictish kingdoms. These kingdoms are: Cait (or Cat), located in modern-day Caithness and Sutherland; Ce, located in modern-day Mar and Buchan; Circin, possibly in modern-day Angus and the Mearns; Fib, which is modern-day Fife; Fidach, with an unknown location but possibly near Inverness; Fotla, which is modern-day Atholl (Ath-Fotla); and Fortriu, a name related to the Romans’ Verturiones, now believed to be centered in Moray.
Other smaller kingdoms may have existed. Some evidence suggests a Pictish kingdom might have been in Orkney. De Situ Albanie is not a very reliable source, and the idea that there were seven kingdoms, one for each of the seven sons of Cruithne (the legendary founder of the Picts), is not certain. No matter how many kingdoms there were or what they were called, the Pictish people were not a single, unified nation.
For much of recorded Pictish history, the kingdom of Fortriu was the most powerful. In some records, the king of Fortriu and the king of the Picts are the same person. Earlier, Fortriu was thought to be near Perth and southern Strathearn, but recent research suggests its center was in Moray (a much larger area in the High Middle Ages than the modern county of Moray).
The Picts are often believed to have used matrilineal succession (passing the throne through the mother’s side) based on Irish legends and a statement in the writings of Bede. At the time Bede wrote, the Pictish kings were Bridei and Nechtan, sons of Der Ilei, who claimed the throne through their mother, Der Ilei, who was the daughter of a previous Pictish king.
In Ireland, kings were expected to come from families where a great-grandfather had been a king. Pictish kings were usually succeeded by brothers or cousins (agnatic seniority), not because they used matrilineal succession, but because these men were often more experienced and had the support needed to rule. This system was similar to a practice called tanistry.
The only woman ruler mentioned in early Scottish history is the Pictish Queen in 617, who called pirates to attack Donnán and his companions on the island of Eigg.
Over time, the nature of kingship changed. Early kings needed to be strong warriors to keep their power, but later, kingship became less personal and more organized. When Pictland became Alba, bureaucratic kingship was still far off, but the church’s support and the control of a few powerful families helped keep leadership stable for much of the later 7th century. Around the same time, Pictish neighbors in Dál Riata and Northumbria faced problems, as their earlier stable systems of succession and rule weakened.
The later Mormaers (leaders of regions) are believed to have started during Pictish times and may have been inspired by Northumbrian practices. It is unclear whether Mormaers were former kings, royal officials, local nobles, or a mix of these roles. Similarly, the Pictish shires and thanages (administrative areas) may have been adopted from southern neighbors.
Society
The archaeological record provides information about the Picts' material culture and suggests that their society was not easily told apart from its British, Gaelic, or Anglo-Saxon neighbors. While knowledge of other Celtic societies may help in understanding the Picts, these societies lived in a very large area. Using knowledge from pre-Roman Gaul or 13th-century Ireland to understand the Picts of the 6th century may be misleading if the comparisons are taken too far.
Like most northern European people during Late Antiquity, the Picts were farmers living in small communities. Cattle and horses were clear signs of wealth and importance. Sheep and pigs were raised in large numbers, and place names suggest that people moved their animals to different areas for grazing. Animals were smaller by later standards, but horses from Britain were brought to Ireland to breed larger horses. Irish sources show that the elite competed to raise large cattle, and this may have also happened in Pictland. Carvings show hunting with dogs and, unlike in Ireland, with falcons. Cereal crops included wheat, barley, oats, and rye. Vegetables included kale, cabbage, onions, leeks, peas, beans, and turnips, as well as some now-rare plants like skirret. Wild garlic, nettles, and watercress may have been gathered from the wild. The focus on raising animals meant that hides and leather were easily available. Wool was the main material for clothing, and flax was also used, though it is unclear if they grew it for fibers, oil, or food. Fish, shellfish, seals, and whales were harvested along coasts and rivers. The importance of domesticated animals suggests that meat and milk were major parts of the diet for ordinary people, while the elite likely ate more meat from farming and hunting.
No large settlements similar to those around important fortresses in Gaul or southern Britain are known in Pictland. Larger, but not large, settlements existed near royal forts, such as Burghead Fort, or near religious sites. No towns in Scotland are known until the 12th century.
The technology used in daily life is not well recorded, but archaeological evidence shows it was similar to that in Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England. Recently, evidence of watermills has been found in Pictland. Kilns were used to dry wheat or barley, which was helpful in the changeable, moderate climate.
The early Picts were linked to piracy and raiding along the coasts of Roman Britain. Even in the Late Middle Ages, it was unclear whether people were traders or pirates, so Pictish pirates may have also been merchants. While it is often said that trade with the Roman Empire ended, this is not entirely true. Limited evidence shows that Pictland traded with other regions, and items like tableware and storage vessels from Gaul, likely brought via the Irish Sea, have been found. This trade may have been managed from Dunadd in Dál Riata, where such goods were common. While long-distance travel was rare, it was not unheard of, as stories of missionaries, traveling clerics, and exiles show.
Brochs are often linked to the Picts, but they were built earlier during the Iron Age and stopped being used around 100 AD. They remained in use after the Pictish period. Crannogs, which may have started in the Neolithic period, were rebuilt and some were still used during the Pictish era. The most common buildings were roundhouses and rectangular wooden halls. Many churches were built from wood, but some were built from stone by the early 8th century.
The Picts are often said to have had tattoos, but there is limited evidence for this. Realistic pictures of Pictish nobles, hunters, and warriors, both male and female, without clear tattoos, appear on stones. These include Latin and ogham script, not all of which have been translated. The well-known Pictish symbols on stones and other items have not been fully understood. Pictish art is classified as "Celtic" and later as "Insular." Irish poets described the Picts as being very similar to themselves.
Religion
Early Pictish religion was likely similar to Celtic polytheism, but few details remain from before Christianity arrived. Place names are the only clear evidence of religious practices from that time. The exact time when Pictish leaders converted to Christianity is unknown. Some traditions say Saint Palladius visited Pictland after leaving Ireland, and Abernethy is linked to Saint Brigid of Kildare. Saint Patrick wrote about "apostate Picts," meaning those who had turned away from their old beliefs, but the poem Y Gododdin does not describe the Picts as pagans. Bede wrote that Saint Ninian (often confused with Saint Finnian of Moville, who died around 589) converted the southern Picts. Recent archaeological work at Portmahomack suggests the monastery there was founded in the late 6th century, earlier than previously thought. This time matches the reigns of Bridei mac Maelchon and Columba, but the spread of Christianity across Pictland likely took many years.
Pictland was influenced by more than just Iona and Ireland. It also had connections to Northumbrian churches, as seen during the reign of Nechtan mac Der Ilei. Some sources say Nechtan expelled Ionan monks and clergy in 717, possibly due to disagreements over the timing of Easter and hairstyles, which may have reflected support for Roman traditions or efforts to strengthen royal control over the church. However, place names show widespread influence from Iona in Pictland. The Cáin Adomnáin (Law of Adomnán), a legal code, lists Nechtan’s brother, Bridei, as one of its supporters.
Monastic centers in Pictland were less important than in Ireland. In areas like Strathspey and Perthshire, evidence suggests that local church structures existed even in early medieval times. Major religious sites in eastern Pictland included Portmahomack, Cennrígmonaid (later St Andrews), Dunkeld, Abernethy, and Rosemarkie. These sites were likely connected to Pictish kings, showing that rulers played a major role in supporting and controlling the church. Recent studies of Portmahomack, led by Martin Carver, have provided new insights into its history.
The worship of saints was important in later Pictish society, as it was in other Christian regions. Kings honored major saints, such as Saint Peter (for Nechtan) and possibly Saint Andrew (for Óengus mac Fergusa). Many lesser-known saints also held significance, though some are now forgotten. Saint Drostan, for example, was widely venerated in the north earlier in history but was nearly forgotten by the 12th century. Saint Serf of Culross was associated with Nechtan’s brother, Bridei. It appears that noble families had their own patron saints and built churches or abbeys to honor them.
Art
Pictish art is most closely linked to large stones, but also includes smaller items made of stone, bone, and metal, such as brooches. This art style is based on a special form of the early medieval Celtic La Tène design, with growing influences from the Insular art of 7th and 8th century Ireland and Northumbria, followed by styles from Anglo-Saxon and Irish art as the medieval period continued. The best-known surviving examples are the many Pictish stones found across Pictland.
The symbols and patterns often include animals, such as the Pictish Beast, and shapes like the "rectangle," "mirror and comb," "double-disc and Z-rod," and "crescent and V-rod." Other designs include bosses and lenses with pelta and spiral shapes. Patterns are made with curved lines and hatchings. Cross-slabs are carved with Pictish symbols, interlace patterns from Insular art, and Christian images, though these are sometimes hard to understand due to wear or unclear details. Some Christian scenes, like David playing the harp, Daniel with the lion, or St. Paul and St. Anthony meeting in the desert, were influenced by art found in medieval manuscripts.
Pictish metalwork has been found in Pictland (modern-day Scotland) and also farther south. The Picts likely had access to silver, possibly from raids or payments to avoid attacks. A large collection of late Roman silver, called hacksilver, found at Traprain Law may have come from either source. The largest group of early Pictish metalwork was discovered in 1819 at Norrie's Law in Fife, but much of it was lost or melted down due to poor laws about treasure finds. A famous 7th-century silver and enamel plaque from this hoard shows a "Z-rod," one of the Pictish symbols, in excellent condition. Few similar items have survived.
Over ten heavy silver chains, some more than 0.5 meters long, have been found from this time. The double-linked Whitecleuch Chain is one of only two with a special linking piece for the ends, decorated with symbols and enamel, suggesting they were used as "choker" necklaces.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, after the Picts converted to Christianity, their leaders began using a type of Irish Celtic brooch, especially those with rounded ends. Some older Irish brooches were modified to match Pictish styles, such as the 8th-century Breadalbane Brooch now in the British Museum. The St Ninian's Isle Treasure (c. 750–825 AD) holds the best collection of Pictish metalwork. Other features of Pictish metalwork include dotted backgrounds or designs and animal shapes inspired by Insular art. The 8th-century Monymusk Reliquary combines elements of Pictish and Irish styles.
Language
The Pictish language is no longer spoken. Information about it comes mainly from place names, personal names, a few inscriptions, and records written in other languages. These names suggest the Picts may have spoken an Insular Celtic language, possibly related to the Brittonic languages, such as Welsh or Cumbric. Some scholars believe it was a separate branch of Insular Celtic called Pritenic, while others think it shared similarities with Brythonic languages due to limited Latin influence. The lack of written Pictish texts does not mean the Picts were illiterate. The church required Latin literacy, and religious documents needed scribes to copy them. Pictish artwork shows people reading and carrying books, indicating literacy was present, though limited to senior clergy and monasteries. The Pictish language may have influenced Scottish Gaelic, which has some unique features compared to other Goidelic languages and shares traits with Brittonic languages.
Place names provide evidence of Gaelic expansion into Pictish lands. For example, "Atholl," meaning "New Ireland," appears in early 8th-century records. The name "Fortriu" also includes place names linked to Gaelic settlement or influence. An older interpretation of "Atholl" as "Athfocla," meaning "north pass" or "north way," suggests the Gaelic name "Athfotla" might be a misreading of a letter.
Ogham inscriptions on Pictish stones and artifacts remain. Some linguists argue these inscriptions are not Celtic and may indicate a non-Celtic language was spoken alongside Celtic languages during the Pictish era. While interpretations have advanced, the exact meaning and significance of these inscriptions are still debated.