The Phaistos Disc, also called the Phaistos Disk, is a clay object found on the island of Crete, Greece. It may date to around 2000 to 1500 BCE, during the Minoan Bronze Age. The disc has writing in a language and script that are not understood. Experts still debate where it was made and what its purpose was. It is now displayed at the archaeological museum in Heraklion. The name is sometimes spelled Phaestos or Festos.
The disc was discovered in 1908 by an Italian archaeologist named Luigi Pernier while he was exploring the Minoan palace at Phaistos. The disc is about 16 cm (6.3 in) wide and has spiral writing on both sides. The writing includes 241 symbols from 45 different signs. These symbols were made by pressing individual stamps into soft clay before the clay was hardened. At first, some scholars thought the disc might be fake, but most experts now believe it is real.
The disc has interested many experts and hobbyists who study ancient writing. Many people have tried to understand the meaning of the symbols. It is not certain if the symbols form a writing system. Most attempts to study the disc assume it is a syllabary, while others think it might be an alphabet or logograms.
Discovery
The Phaistos Disc was discovered at the Minoan palace site of Phaistos, near Hagia Triada, on the south coast of Crete. It was found in the basement of room 8 in building 101, which is part of a group of buildings located to the northeast of the main palace. This group of four rooms also functioned as the main entrance to the palace complex. Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier uncovered the complete "dish" on July 3, 1908, during his excavation of the first Minoan palace.
The disc was located in the main chamber of an underground "temple depository." These basement chambers were only reachable from above and were covered with a layer of fine plaster. The items inside were not rich in valuable artifacts but contained a lot of black earth and ashes, along with burnt bovine bones. In the northern part of the main chamber, within the same black layer, a few centimeters to the southeast of the disc and about 50 centimeters (20 inches) above the floor, Linear A tablet "PH-1" was also discovered.
Dating
Yves Duhoux (1977) dates the disc to between 1850 BC and 1600 BC (MM III in Minoan chronology) based on Luigi Pernier's report, which states that the disc was found in an untouched Middle Minoan location. Jeppesen (1963) dates it to after 1400 BC (LM II–LM III in Minoan chronology). Louis Godart (1990) questions the reliability of Pernier's report but admits that archaeologically, the disc could be from any time during the Middle or Late Minoan periods (MM I–LM III), which spans most of the second millennium BC. Jan Best suggests the disc is from the first half of the 14th century BC (LM IIIA) based on his dating of tablet PH-1.
Physical description
The disc is made of fine-grained clay. Some writers believe the clay may not have come from the local area, possibly not even from Crete. It was deliberately and carefully fired, unlike other items such as tablets and seals, which were accidentally baked.
The disc is roughly cylindrical, with a diameter of about 16 cm (6.3 in) and a thickness of nearly 2 cm (0.8 in). Its edges are rounded. More specifically, its shape is slightly egg-like, with the diameter ranging from 15.8 to 16.5 cm (6.2 to 6.5 in) and the thickness from 1.6 to 2.1 cm (0.63 to 0.83 in). One side of the disc is slightly curved inward, while the other side is curved outward.
The most notable feature of the Phaistos disc is that the raised symbols on its surface were created by pressing individual stamps—each designed for a specific symbol—into the soft clay before it was fired. This process makes the disc an early example of movable-type printing. Typesetter and linguist Herbert Brekle explains:
If the disc is, as believed, a written text, it is a "printed" text that meets all the standards of typographic principles. The spiral arrangement of the symbols, the fact that they were pressed into clay (blind printing) rather than inked, and other differences are simply variations in the technology used. The key point is that the symbols were repeatedly created using the same stamps on the clay.
A similar blind printing method from the medieval period is the Prüfening dedicatory inscription from 1119 AD.
Popular-science writer Jared Diamond describes the disc as an example of a technological innovation that did not spread widely because it appeared at an inconvenient time in history. Diamond compares this to the success of Gutenberg’s printing press.
In addition to the stamped symbols, there are a few marks made by scratching the wet clay with a pointed tool. Each side of the disc has a continuous spiral line that separates the turns of the text. The space between the spiral lines is divided into sections by short lines that extend from the center to the edge. Each section contains a few complete symbols. The beginning of the text, near the edge, is marked by a radial line, with five dots punched along it using the stylus. Some of the stamped symbols also have short diagonal lines beneath them.
Signs
There are 45 different signs on the disc. These signs appear 242 times in total—123 on side A and 119 on side B. In addition, a small diagonal line was carved with a tool (not stamped) under some signs, a total of 18 times. The 45 symbols were numbered from 01 to 45 by Sir Arthur Evans, and most researchers use this numbering system.
The signs were added to the Unicode character set used by computers in 2008, after a proposal in 2006 by Michael Everson and John H. Jenkins. In the table below, the "No." column shows Evans's number for each sign. The "Glyph" column includes a modern drawing of the symbol. The "Font" column uses the Unicode font available in the browser. The Unicode names for the symbols are "PHAISTOS DISC SIGN" followed by names from a 1995 book by Louis Godart.
One sign on side A is too damaged to identify. According to Godart, it may be sign 03 (TATTOOED HEAD) or 20 (DOLIUM); or possibly 08 (GAUNTLET) or 44 (SMALL AXE). It could also be a 46th distinct sign.
The images of the signs are shown reversed left-to-right, like how they appear in most books and articles. Some signs appear in different orientations, such as rotated 90 or 180 degrees. Scholars generally believe that these rotations do not change the meaning of the symbols, so rotated copies are still considered the same symbol. Therefore, the "normal" orientation of these signs is unknown and may have been decided by the scribe.
Many of the signs show clear objects, such as humans, birds, plants, or parts of these (like heads or flowers). However, the exact nature of most objects is still unknown as of 2023. The names given to the signs by scholars, including Godart and the Unicode group, are often based on simple shape similarities.
Symbol 21 (Godart's "COMB") was once thought to represent a palace floorplan. However, this idea was questioned after a vase with a similar symbol was found, likely used as a potter's mark.
Symbol 20 ("DOLIUM") was believed to represent a type of sea snail shell, such as Tonna dolium. A similar shell was found at Phaistos and may have been used as a musical instrument for rituals.
The distribution of symbols is not random and differs between the two sides. Evans's symbol 02 (PLUMED HEAD) appears most often, 19 times—14 on side A. The next most frequent symbols are 07 (HELMET), with 18 occurrences (mostly on side B); 12 (SHIELD), with 17 occurrences (mostly on side A); and 27 (HIDE), with 15 occurrences (10 on side A).
Still, 26 of the 45 symbols appear on both sides at least once. The most common symbols that appear on only one side are 31 (EAGLE) on side A and 22 (SLING) on side B, each appearing five times.
The table below shows how many distinct signs (Sign count) have the same number of appearances (Frequency). The third number in each column is the product of the two numbers above, showing the total number of appearances (Token count) for those signs.
There are nine symbols that appear only once: 04 (A5), 05 (B3), 11 (A13), 15 (B8), 17 (A24), 30 (B27), 42 (B9), 43 (B4), and 44 (A7). Of the eight symbols that appear twice, four (03, 21, 28, 41) are only on side A, three (09, 16, 20) are only on side B, and one (14) appears on both sides.
The distribution of pairs of symbols is also not uniform. For example, of the 17 appearances of sign 12 (SHIELD), 13 appear immediately after sign 02 (PLUMED HEAD).
Text
This is a single image showing the text "unrolled." The order of the characters is reversed from left to right, but the signs themselves are shown in their original orientation.
Evans once claimed the disc was written and should be read from the center outward, as it would have been easier to write the text first and then shape the disc around it. Most scholars disagree with this idea, and Evans later changed his mind. The correct reading direction is clockwise, from the outside of the disc toward the center, similar to the spiral text on the Lead Plaque of Magliano.
The signs on each side are arranged in a single spiral. These spirals are divided into groups by radial lines. These groups are called "words," even though their exact meaning is unknown. The ends of the text on each side are also considered "word" boundaries. There are 61 such "words" on the disc: 31 on side A and 30 on side B. These "words" are numbered A1 to A31 and B1 to B30, reading from right to left (clockwise, edge-to-center).
There may be one additional radial line near the center of side A, covered by sign 03 (TATTOOED HEAD), between sign 10 (ARROW) and the central sign 38 (ROSETTE). However, most scholars ignore this possible line and treat the last three symbols as a single "word" (10-03-38). This group appears at a similar position on the next-to-last turn of the spiral.
On both sides, a radial line appears just before the start of the text, with five dots punched along it using a sharp, round tool.
Short, slanted lines drawn with a stylus (not stamped) are always attached to the last sign of a "word" when reading from the outside in. Their meaning is not fully understood. One idea, supported by Evans, suggests these lines divide the text into "paragraphs."
All transcriptions of the text assume a right-to-left (clockwise, edge-to-center) reading direction, starting at the vertical radial line with five dots. However, the order of the characters in these transcriptions is flipped so they can be read left-to-right and top-to-bottom. The slanted line is used to mark the end of a "paragraph," and a horizontal line is added after each "paragraph" for clarity.
For consistency with most published sources, these transcriptions include an oblique stroke at the end of word A24, even though high-resolution images show it to be a crack.
The following is a representation of the Phaistos Disc inscription using Unicode characters from the Phaistos code block (code points +101D0 to +101FC). Radial lines are shown with the ASCII character "|" (+7C), and the slanted line is represented by the PHAISTOS DISK COMBINING OBLIQUE STROKE (+101FD) after the affected symbol. The radial line with five dots, marking the start of the text, is shown with the ISO Latin 1 character "¦" (+A6). The boxed question mark "⍰" (+2370) represents an unreadable sign in word A8. The appearance of the signs depends on the font used by the browser, but they are typically flipped left-to-right compared to their actual orientation on the disc.
Another transcription uses modern drawings of the signs, which are reversed left-to-right compared to their appearance on the disc. The labels A1-A31 and B1-B30 are traditional word numbers.
A third transcription uses the numbers assigned by Evans to the signs. The vertical bar characters "¦" and "|" represent the start of the text and word-separating lines, respectively. The slash "/" marks the slanted line under a sign. The caret "^" shows the transition from the outer edge of the disc to the inner turns of the spiral, and "??” represents an unreadable sign.
The disc shows signs of corrections, with some signs erased and replaced by others.
Godart describes these corrections as occurring in the following words: A1 (signs 02-12-13-01), A4 (29-29-34) together with A5 (02-12-04), A8 (12), A10 (02-41-19?-35), A12 (12), A16 (12-31-26?), A17 (second 27?), A29 (second 27?), B1 (12-22), B3 (37?), B4 (22-25 imprinted over the same), B10 (07?-24?-40?), B13 (beside 29?). Question marks indicate uncertainty about whether a particular sign was corrected.
The borders of word B28 were widened to make space for sign 02.
The two signs 27 (HIDE) in word A29 are rotated 180 degrees compared to other occurrences of this sign: "head down" instead of "head up." This rotation may have been caused by limited space in A29.
Arie Cate observed that if sign rotations were random, the chance of only two (or three) signs being rotated is very small.
On side A, there are several places where the same sign appears near each other in adjacent turns of the spiral, such as sign 02 (PLUMED HEAD) in word A1 and word A14. The two 27 signs (HIDE) in word A29 are upside down, with their "heads" pointing toward the HIDE sign in word A23, which is in the next turn. Arie Cate claims the likelihood of these alignments being accidental is very low.
Origin of the artifact
For many years after its discovery, most scholars believed the Phaistos Disk was not made in Crete. Evans wrote that when comparing the disk’s symbols to those used by the Minoans, there were many differences. Out of 45 symbols on the disk, only about 10 looked somewhat similar to Minoan symbols. The human figures on the disk also did not match Minoan styles, and the drawing of a ship was different from any found in Crete. Gustave Glotz said the clay used to make the disk was not from Crete. Ipsen believed the disk came from somewhere in the Aegean Sea but agreed with Evans that it was not from Crete. He noted that Linear A, a script used in the Aegean, was common, so this did not explain the disk’s unique features.
Later, new discoveries changed this view. For example, a vase found at Knossos had a symbol matching one on the Phaistos Disk. A bowl found at Phaistos in 1965 had a mark similar to a symbol on the disk. A sealing found in 1955 also had a symbol similar to one on the disk. Female figures with long, hanging breasts were found at Malia and Phaistos. The Arkalochori Axe had writing with symbols similar to those on the disk. These findings led more scholars to believe the disk was made in Crete. This idea was supported by Michael Trauth in 1990, Yves Duhoux in 2000, and Andrew Robinson in 2008.
Hoax hypothesis
The unique script, spiral pattern, and use of individual symbols have made some scholars question if the Phaistos disc is a 1908 forgery or hoax. However, the exact time it was made has not been determined using thermoluminescence dating. Andrew Robinson agrees that this method would be very useful but does not support the idea that the disc is fake. Similarities with other Minoan objects found later suggest the disc is genuine. For example, the "comb" symbol (sign 21) matches symbols found on a sealing in 1955 and a bowl in 1965. The spiral pattern on the disc also resembles a ring discovered in 1926 at Knossos. Additionally, several symbols on the disc match those found on fragments of Impressed Fine Ware from Phaistos.
Decipherment attempts
During the 20th century, many people made guesses about the meaning of the Phaistos Disc, especially amateur archaeologists. Many attempts have been made to understand the symbols on the disc, with different theories suggesting they could be prayers, a story, a game, or even a math problem. Some of these ideas are not considered reliable by experts.
Most experts think the writing system uses a syllabary, which is a type of writing where symbols represent syllables. This idea is based on the fact that 45 symbols appear in a text of 241 symbols, which is typical for syllabaries. Some experts believe the system also includes symbols that represent whole words, a feature found in ancient scripts like Linear B and cuneiform. Others think the writing might use an alphabet or only symbols that represent whole words.
Many people still believe the mystery of the disc can be solved, but experts say it is unlikely unless more examples of the symbols are found elsewhere. This is because there is not enough information to analyze the writing fully. Any attempt to decode the symbols without matching them to other known writings is unlikely to be accepted as correct.
The writing on the Phaistos Disc is very different from other known scripts, but some scholars think it was not created completely on its own. Gunther Ipsen suggested the creator was influenced by other writing systems, such as the Hieroglyphic Luwian script from Anatolia, which combined symbols from cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Some experts believe the symbols on the disc are older or different versions of symbols used in Linear A, an ancient script. Others think the symbols resemble those in Anatolian hieroglyphs or Egyptian hieroglyphs. Some researchers have even suggested possible links to the Phoenician alphabet or the Byblos syllabary.
In 1909, Arthur Evans compared the symbols on the disc to those in Linear A inscriptions. In 1959, Benjamin Schwartz suggested the Phaistos Disc script is related to the Cretan linear scripts. Similar ideas were later proposed by other scholars, including Werner Nahm in 1975 and Torsten Timm in 2004.
Some researchers have noticed that certain symbols, like number 12 (shield), 43 (strainer), and 31 (eagle), look similar to symbols in Linear A and Linear B. They think these symbols might represent the same sounds, such as "qe," "ta," and "ku." Torsten Timm used data from Giulio Facchetti to match 20 of the 45 symbols on the disc to symbols in Linear A or Linear B.
In 1961, S. Davis suggested the Phaistos Disc script might be similar to Anatolian hieroglyphs. In 1988, Jan Best and Fred Woudhuizen made similar claims. In 2004, Winfried Achterberg and others proposed a detailed connection between the disc and Anatolian hieroglyphs, leading them to claim they had fully deciphered the script. A revised version of their research was published in 2021.
Summary table
The following table summarizes the possible identifications of Phaistos signs with Linear A/B, the Arkalochori Axe glyphs, and Luwian hieroglyphs:
List of decipherment claims
Decipherment claims can be divided into two types: those that identify the language used in the writing, and those that do not focus on language. A logographic system, which shows meaning through symbols, does not help identify the language itself, even though it can explain what the writing means.
Unless stated otherwise, the following examples assume the text is read from right to left, beginning with side A.
Unicode
A group of 46 symbols from the Phaistos Disc, including 45 signs identified by Evans and one symbol with a diagonal line, were added to Unicode in April 2008 (Unicode version 5.1). These symbols are placed in the range 101D0–101FF within Plane 1, also called the Supplementary Multilingual Plane. The characters are set to display from left to right, so in charts and text, the symbols appear reversed compared to their original arrangement on the disc.
Modern use
Side A of the Phaistos Disc serves as the logo for FORTH, a major research center in Greece.