In Mesoamerican culture, mirrors were believed to act as windows to a place that could be seen but not touched. Before the arrival of Europeans, mirrors in Mesoamerica were made from stone and had many uses, including decoration and divination. Divination involved using the surface of a bowl of water as a mirror to predict the future. This practice was still used by the Maya, Aztecs, and Purépecha people during the time of the Spanish conquest. In Mesoamerican art, mirrors are often shown next to pools of liquid, which were likely water.
Early mirrors were made from single pieces of iron ore that were polished to create a reflective surface. During the Classic period, mirrors were made using mosaics, which combined different types of ores to create larger mirrors. Mosaic mirrors made from pyrite were common in many parts of Mesoamerica, especially in Teotihuacan and the Maya region. Over time, pyrite breaks down, leaving only a faint stain on the mirror’s back, which has caused some to mistakenly believe these items were paint palettes, painted discs, or pot lids. By the Postclassic period, mirrors made from obsidian became more common.
Function and symbolism of mirrors in Mesoamerica
Mirrors in Mesoamerica were not just decorative items but were used for predicting the future and were part of the clothing worn by important people. They were seen as symbols of sacred caves and were believed to connect people with supernatural forces. Mirrors were linked to fire and water because of their shiny surfaces. They were also closely connected to the sun. In pre-Columbian Mexico, mirrors were used to see a person's future through divination. Among the Maya during the Classic period, mirrors were tools for communicating with otherworldly beings, as shown in painted scenes on ceramic pots. These otherworldly mirrors were thought to be the opposite side of earthly mirrors and were used by gods and supernatural beings. In central Mexico during the Postclassic period, the world was imagined as a large circular mirror.
Mirrors were associated with fire in Mesoamerica. They could be shown as flowers or butterflies in art. Butterflies and flowers were linked to fire in central Mexico from the Classic to Postclassic periods, with butterflies representing flames. The Olmecs made curved mirrors in the Preclassic period that could start fires.
Mirrors were also linked to water. An Early Classic mirror in the style of Teotihuacan was found in the Guácimo area of Costa Rica. It had images that symbolized bodies of water. Water imagery remained connected to mirrors in central Mexico until Aztec times. In Mesoamerican art, mirrors were used to represent the surface of a water pool. During the Classic Period, mirrors were placed in bowls to symbolize bowls of water, as seen in Teotihuacan and Maya areas. Water-filled bowls have been used as mirrors for divination in Mesoamerica and the American Southwest up to modern times. An incense burner from the Early Classic period in Escuintla, Guatemala, combined butterfly and water images. The mirror on the burner had wing-like shapes on either side, showing a butterfly rising from a water-filled bowl.
A painted mural from Teotihuacan, now in the De Young Museum, shows a mirror with a symbol for a piece of jade jewelry. Jade pendants were often shown in Teotihuacan art floating in streams. In the Maya region, jade beads were placed next to mirrors in burials and offerings during the Classic and Postclassic periods. While jade and mirrors may have been placed together because both were valuable, jade was also used in divination practices. Like mirrors, jade beads were used to see the future and were believed to have magical powers. Jade was also connected to water.
In art from the Classic period, mirrors were sometimes shown with a symbol resembling a reptile’s eye, though the meaning is unclear. The ringed eyes of the central Mexican rain god Tlāloc may have represented mirrors, as seen in Teotihuacan art from the Classic period through the Aztec era. In the Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España, the Nahuatl word tēzcatl referred to both eyes and mirrors. This connection also existed among the Maya, where the Tzotzil phrase nen sat meant "mirror of the face" or "mirror of the eye." This link between mirrors and eyes may have come from the reflective eyes of jaguars. Mirror stones were used to represent eyes in sculptures across many Mesoamerican cultures.
From the Classic period, mirrors were associated with spider webs, possibly because of the lines on mosaic mirrors. Spider and web imagery appeared often in Teotihuacan art. This connection lasted through the Postclassic period and beyond, as seen in a polished gold Mixtec mirror shaped like a spider. The modern Huichol people still associate mirrors with spider webs.
Mirrors have been linked to the sun in Mesoamerica since the Preclassic period, when the Olmecs made this connection. The Maya continued this association during the Classic period, and the link between mirrors and the sun remains today. The Sierra Totonac people of Mexico call the sun Espejo Sol, meaning "Mirror Sun." In the Postclassic period, turquoise mirrors used by the Toltecs and Aztecs represented the sun.
Mirrors in the Maya region
Mirrors have been discovered in nearly every area of the Maya region, especially in burial sites and special places used for rituals. These mirrors date back to all periods of Maya civilization, from around 600 BC during the Middle Preclassic era until the early 1520s when Spanish explorers arrived. Their use and production were most common in the Maya highlands during the Early Classic period, while mirrors from the lowlands were mostly made during the Late Classic period. Maya mirrors were created by highly skilled artisans and were very valuable to the Maya elite. It is likely that only high-status artisans, possibly from the aristocracy or royalty, made these mirrors. Although many mirrors have been found in the Maya region, fewer mosaic mirrors have been discovered in the lowlands. Large numbers of mirrors have been found in highland sites such as Kaminaljuyu and Nebaj in the Guatemalan Highlands. The high number of mirrors in these locations suggests that they were centers for making and distributing mirrors through trade networks. It is likely that mirrors were made in the highlands and then traded to the lowlands.
Most Maya mirrors were round, though some were oval or square. They ranged in size from 5.6 to 29 centimeters (about 2.2 to 11.4 inches) across, and their thickness varied from 3 to 72 millimeters (about 0.12 to 2.83 inches). The circular shape of many mirrors suggests they were drawn using tools like compasses. Most mirrors were backed with slate, while a few used sandstone or ceramic. Some may have been backed with shell. Most mirror backs were plain, but a few had intricate carvings or hieroglyphic writing. Some mirrors were framed with wood or bone, though these materials often do not survive well. Some mirrors show traces of stucco, which may have been painted, or cinnabar, a red mineral often found in elite burials. A mirror with hieroglyphic text was found in Río Azul, in northern Guatemala. Another mirror from Topoxte in the Petén region has a circular band of text on its back that includes the phrase "u-nen," meaning "his mirror." Mirrors with Maya glyphs have been found as far away as Costa Rica, over 850 kilometers (about 530 miles) from the Maya heartland. Small, polygonal mirror pieces were attached to the backing with an unknown adhesive. Over time, these pieces have deteriorated, leaving a rust-like residue on the mirror backs. In some cases, adhesive ridges outline the shapes of the missing mosaic pieces.
Mirrors found in Maya tombs were often placed near the head, chest, back, groin, or feet of the deceased. A few were placed on the tomb floor, away from the body. In Maya art, mirrors are shown as handheld objects, sometimes mounted on stands or held by dwarfs or servants in front of elite individuals. Recent discoveries in Maya writing have shown that mirrors were used for ritual scrying, a practice of looking into mirrors to see spiritual visions. This tradition began with ancient shamanistic practices and was later formalized by the Maya priesthood. Mirrors were highly valued in Maya society and were used only by the elite.
History of Mesoamerican mirrors
The earliest stone mirrors in Mesoamerica were made before the Olmec civilization began, with some examples dating back to around 2000 BC. Early in Mesoamerican history, iron ore mirrors were linked to a special group of people who inherited their high status. At Paso de la Amada, a Mokaya site in southern Chiapas, iron ore mirrors were found and date to between 1400 and 1100 BC. A Mokaya tomb from the same period was discovered at the Olmec settlement of Cantón Corralito. The tomb held the remains of an elite woman, along with an adult male and a child. The woman had a large flat iron ore mirror on her chest. It is not known if the remains belonged to local Mokaya people or Olmecs from the Gulf Coast. Around the same time, in the Valley of Mexico, the Tlatilco culture used imported mirrors made from jade. During the Early and Middle Preclassic periods (about 1500 to 500 BC), the Olmecs made mirrors from iron ore, including minerals like hematite, ilmenite, and magnetite. The Olmecs preferred concave mirrors, which reflect images upside down and backward. Larger concave mirrors could start fires. These mirrors were made from single pieces of stone, so they were small, rarely larger than 15 centimeters (5.9 inches). To create the reflective surface, sand or hematite powder was used to polish the iron ore.
In the Valley of Oaxaca, only San José Mogote has evidence of mirror production dating back to the Preclassic period. Mirrors from San José Mogote were sent to places like Etlatongo and the Olmec city of San Lorenzo. Mirrors found at San Lorenzo date to between 1000 and 750 BC. By the end of this period, mirror production at San José Mogote stopped.
The earliest known Maya mirror had a broken slate back and was found in Cahal Pech, Belize, dating to about 600 BC, during the Middle Preclassic.
The first Olmec mirrors were discovered during archaeological work in the 1940s. In 1942, a mirror and a fragment were found at La Venta, but they were not recognized as mirrors. In 1943, a complete mirror was discovered and identified. More mirrors were found later at La Venta, including two high-quality ones from offerings in 1945.
Many Olmec iron ore mirrors are known, but only a few were found in secure excavations. At Las Bocas in Puebla, a fine mosaic mirror was discovered and dates to around 1000 BC. By the Middle Preclassic period, specialist artisans likely made high-status stone items like mirrors. An Olmec mining site in the Cintalapa valley had partially worked blocks of ilmenite and magnetite, a mirror fragment, tools, and San Lorenzo-style ceramics. These items date to about 950 BC. Concave Olmec mirrors were made from a single piece of iron ore. The front was concave with a polished surface, the edge was convex, and the back and sides were roughly shaped. One mirror had a smooth, polished back. Concave mirrors appear in Olmec art as chest decorations. They are divided into two groups: those with one hole near the top and those with two holes on the sides. The latter are usually larger. Most mirrors were cut from larger rocks and shaped into ovals. Each mirror’s curve was unique, and none were perfectly symmetrical, which may have been intentional. Circular mirrors can light fires, while parabolic mirrors may have been used to make smoke. At Arroyo Pesquero, four large mirrors were found, two of which were circular and good for starting fires.
Tomb A at La Venta is one of the oldest formal tombs in Mesoamerica, dating to about 600 BC. A highly polished magnetite mirror and a figurine of a seated woman wearing an obsidian mirror were among the burial items. Seven concave mirrors were found at Complex A, made from hematite, ilmenite, and magnetite. These are considered some of the finest examples of Olmec iron ore craftsmanship. Their concave surfaces were polished as precisely as modern optical lenses, but their backs were rough. The concave surfaces formed parabolic reflectors. The borders of the mirrors were circular or elliptical, and they had different focal lengths. The three iron ores used were the best for making durable, reflective mirrors with a non-tarnishing surface. All had holes near their edges and were likely worn as chest ornaments, as shown in Olmec art. Some mirrors could project images onto flat surfaces and start fires. The concave surfaces were polished manually, possibly with powdered iron ore. Similar mirrors were found at San Lorenzo, Río Pesquero, and Guerrero. The Olmecs avoided using iron pyrite in mirrors because it deteriorates over time. Mirrors were used in rituals by Olmec priests, shamans, and rulers, who associated them with the sun.
By the Classic period (around AD 250–900), iron pyrite became the preferred material for mirrors. Instead of using a single piece of pyrite, small pieces were attached to slate to make mosaic mirrors. The slate was often shaped into circles and could be larger than earlier mirrors. Mosaic mirrors are rarely preserved because pyrite oxidizes quickly, leaving only stained slate. This has led to mistakes in identifying mirror backs as paint palettes or pot lids. During the Classic period, circular pyrite mirrors were worn on the lower back by Mesoamerican nobles. These were found in burials from the Early Classic period at Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu. Ceramic figurines from Escuintla often show mirrors worn on the chest. Mosaic mirrors allowed for