The Tollund Man (died 405–384 BC) is a naturally preserved body of a man who lived during the 5th century BC, a time in Scandinavia known as the Pre-Roman Iron Age. He was discovered in 1950 near Silkeborg on the Jutland peninsula in Denmark. His body was so well preserved that people thought he had been killed recently. Twelve years before his discovery, another preserved body, called the Elling Woman, was found in the same bog.

The cause of his death was determined to be hanging. However, there is not enough evidence to know whether he was killed as part of a religious ritual or as a punishment for a crime.

Identity and dating

Scientific studies date the Tollund Man’s life to the 5th century BC, a time in Scandinavia known as the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Carbon dating of his remains shows he died between 405 and 380 BC. Scientists estimate he was about 40 years old when he died.

His height was recorded as 1.61 metres (5 feet 3 inches). However, the effects of bog preservation caused his body to shrink, so he may have been slightly taller when he was alive.

Chemical analysis of his hair and femur suggests he spent his final year in the area of modern-day Denmark. He moved at least 32 kilometres (20 miles) during the last six months of his life. These findings indicate he lived and died near the bog where his body was discovered.

Discovery

On May 8, 1950, two peat cutters named Viggo and Emil Hojgaard found a body in the peat layer of the Bjældskovdal peat bog, which is 12 kilometers (7.5 miles) west of Silkeborg, Denmark. The body was so well preserved that they first thought it was a recent murder victim.

The body, later called the Tollund Man, was buried 60 meters (200 feet) away from solid ground, covered by 2.3 meters (7 feet 7 inches) of peat. It was positioned in a curled-up posture.

The man wore a pointed hat made of sheepskin and wool, secured under his chin with a leather strap. A smooth leather belt was around his waist. A rope made of braided animal hide was tightly wrapped around his neck and extended down his back. The rest of his body was not covered by clothing.

Scientific examination and conclusions

Radiocarbon dating of Tollund Man showed that he died around 405–380 BC.

The soft tissues of his body were preserved because of the acid in the peat, the lack of oxygen underground, and the cold Nordic climate. The acid in the peat comes from a type of moss called Sphagnum. This moss contains special compounds in its cell walls that help protect the body from breaking down. Because of the peat’s acidity, bones usually dissolve instead of staying intact.

Scientists used strontium isotope analysis to study samples from his femur and hair. They could only measure up to one year because his hair was short. The results showed small differences in strontium levels, suggesting he lived in Denmark during his final year and may have traveled at least 30 kilometers (20 miles) in the six months before his death.

Examinations and X-rays showed his head was not damaged, and his heart, lungs, and liver were well preserved. His hair was cut very short, almost hidden by his cap. Short stubble (1 mm [0.039 in] long) on his chin and upper lip indicated he usually kept his face clean-shaven but had not shaved on the day he died.

His feet and right thumb were preserved in formalin for further study. In 1976, Danish police analyzed his thumbprint, making it one of the oldest recorded prints.

In 1950, doctors concluded he died by hanging, not strangulation. The rope left furrows on his skin beneath his chin and on the sides of his neck, but no mark was found at the back of his neck where a noose would have been tied. A 2002 re-examination confirmed this, as X-rays showed his tongue was swollen, a sign of hanging.

Tests on his stomach and intestines, conducted in the 1950s and later with improved methods, revealed his last meal was porridge or gruel made from grains and seeds. In the 2020s, charred seeds were found, supporting this conclusion. Around 40 seed types were identified, but the porridge was mainly made from six-rowed barley, pale persicaria, and flax. Small amounts of other seeds, such as corn spurrey and false flax, were also present. Analysis showed barley was the main ingredient, along with other grasses and about 1% knotweed. Parasite eggs, including those from whipworm, tapeworm, and mawworm, were found in his digestive system. Chemical tests also detected steroids and proteins from fish.

Based on the digestion stage, he had eaten 12 to 24 hours before death. Porridge was a common meal for people of that time. Fish was present in his meal, but no fresh fruit was found, suggesting the meal was eaten in winter or early spring. The presence of weed seeds and sand, which are usually removed during grain harvesting, suggests threshing waste may have been added to his food. This practice has been found in other bog bodies and may have been ritualistic or for flavor.

Cause of death

The cause of Tollund Man's death is not known for sure. Some experts believe he was a ritual sacrifice because his body was positioned in a specific way, his eyes and mouth were closed, and he had eaten a special meal. Other experts think he may have been executed, as Germanic tribes sometimes buried traitors under mounds of sticks.

Preservation and display

Tollund Man is displayed at the Silkeborg Museum in Denmark, where it is part of an exhibition about items found in bogs.

When the body was first removed from the peat in 1950, experts quickly realized that preserving it would be difficult. Water in bogs helps keep soft tissues stable, but when the body is exposed to air, the moisture starts to dry up, and the remains can shrink or break apart.

At the time, the science that helps preserve things was still learning new ways to protect materials that had been soaked in water. Earlier methods sometimes caused more damage than help. For example, in the nineteenth century, people tried preserving bog finds by smoking them like meat. This slowed decay but also caused the remains to shrink and lose fine details.

Tollund Man gave researchers a special chance. Although much of the body had already started to decay when it was found, the head was in very good condition. Its features were clear enough for a detailed study, so conservators focused on saving the head. The rest of the body was not preserved.

They created a new preservation method step by step. First, the head was placed into a series of carefully prepared liquid baths. These baths slowly replaced the water in the tissues with special solutions. Then, the head was placed into warm beeswax. As the wax cooled, it soaked into the cells and made them stronger. When the conservators removed the head from the wax and cleaned it, the features remained intact. The experiment had worked.

Later, the body dried out completely, and the tissue disappeared. In 1987, the Silkeborg Museum used the skeleton as a base to rebuild the body. Today, the original head is attached to a replica of the body.

Other bodies

In Denmark, more than 500 bog bodies and skeletal remains from the Iron Age have been found. Some of these remains, including the Borremose bodies, Huldremose Woman, Grauballe Man, and Haraldskær Woman, are well-preserved and on display at the Moesgaard Museum near Aarhus. These specimens are part of a larger collection, with about 30 of the bog bodies currently kept in Danish museums for further study.

In popular culture

Nobel Prize-winning Irish poet Seamus Heaney wrote poems inspired by P. V. Glob's research on mummified Iron Age bodies discovered in Jutland's peat bogs. Heaney connected the ancient ritualistic deaths to modern political issues. His poem "The Tollund Man," included in his 1971 collection Wintering Out, compares the ancient sacrifice to people who died during violent conflicts in Northern Ireland known as "the Troubles." In 1973, Heaney wrote part of the poem in the guest book at the Tollund Man exhibit.

British author Margaret Drabble used the Tollund Man in her 1989 novel A Natural Curiosity. She showed her characters' interest in the Tollund Man to offer a humorous critique of life in England during Margaret Thatcher's leadership.

The Tollund Man is mentioned in songs such as "Tollund Man" (1995) by the American folk band The Mountain Goats and "Curse of the Tollund Man" (2004) by the English rock band The Darkness.

The Tollund Man was referenced in the television show Bones during an episode titled "Mummy in the Maze." He was also mentioned in the 2016 film Sacrifice, where a bog body was discovered in the Shetland Islands.

The Tollund Man is the focus of the novel Meet Me at the Museum by Anne Youngson. In the book, the main characters form a connection through their shared interest in the Tollund Man.