Akhenaten (said / ˌækəˈnɑːtən/), also spelled Akhenaton, Echnaton, and Khuenaten (Ancient Egyptian: ꜣḫ-n-jtn ʾŪḫə-nə-yātəy, meaning "Effective for the Aten"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh who ruled around 1353–1336 or 1351–1334 BC. He was the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty. He was originally named Amenhotep IV (Ancient Egyptian: jmn-ḥtp, meaning "Amun is satisfied," also called Amenophis IV in Greek). In the fifth year of his reign, he changed his name to Akhenaten.
As a pharaoh, Akhenaten is known for changing the traditional Egyptian religion, which believed in many gods, to a new belief centered on a single god called Aten. Some Egyptologists think his religious changes meant worshiping only one god, while others believe he still acknowledged other gods. After Akhenaten died, Egypt returned to its traditional religious practices. His monuments were removed, his statues were destroyed, and his name was erased from lists of rulers made by later pharaohs. His close successor, Tutankhamun, changed his name from Tutankhaten early in his reign. Later, when new rulers from a different dynasty took power, they called Akhenaten "the enemy of Akhetaten," "the enemy," or "that criminal" in their records.
Akhenaten was almost forgotten until the late 1800s, when the city of Amarna (also called Akhetaten, the capital he built for Aten) was discovered. In 1907, a mummy possibly belonging to Akhenaten was found in tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings by Edward R. Ayrton. Genetic testing showed the man buried there was Tutankhamun's father, but experts now question whether this mummy is truly Akhenaten.
Akhenaten's rediscovery and early studies by Flinders Petrie at Amarna increased public interest in him and his queen, Nefertiti. He is described as "mysterious," "revolutionary," "the first individual in history," and "the greatest idealist of the world," but also as "a heretic," "a fanatic," and "possibly insane." People and scholars are interested in Akhenaten because of his connection to Tutankhamun, the unique and high-quality art he supported, and his attempt to create a new religion that resembled later ideas of worshiping one god.
Family
The future pharaoh Akhenaten was born as Amenhotep, the younger son of Pharaoh Amenhotep III and his main wife, Tiye. Akhenaten had an older brother, Thutmose, who was the heir to the throne. Akhenaten also had four or five sisters: Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Iset, Nebetah, and possibly Beketaten. Thutmose died early, possibly around the thirty-first year of Amenhotep III’s rule, which made Akhenaten next in line for the throne.
Akhenaten married Nefertiti, his Great Royal Wife. The exact time of their marriage is unknown, but records from building projects suggest they married either before or after Akhenaten became pharaoh. For example, Egyptologist Dimitri Laboury suggests they married in Akhenaten’s fourth year as ruler. Another wife of Akhenaten, named Kiya, is also mentioned in inscriptions. Some scholars think Kiya may have been the mother of Tutankhamun. William Murnane believes Kiya was the common name for Tadukhipa, a princess from the Mitanni kingdom who had married Amenhotep III before becoming Akhenaten’s wife. Other known wives of Akhenaten include the daughter of Šatiya, a ruler of Enišasi, and another daughter of the Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II.
Akhenaten had seven known daughters. Six of them were born to Nefertiti. Another daughter, whose name is not recorded, was born to Kiya before the thirteenth year of Akhenaten’s reign.
Pharaoh Tutankhamun, originally named Tutankhaten, was Akhenaten’s son-in-law and is likely also his biological son, born to either Nefertiti or another wife. Genetic tests from 2007–2009, led by Zahi Hawass, suggest Tutankhamun’s parents were a man buried in KV55 and a woman nicknamed “The Younger Lady.” These two were most likely the son and full sister of Amenhotep III and Tiye, which would make them Akhenaten’s parents.
However, the lack of evidence that Akhenaten married any of his sisters has raised questions about the accuracy of the genetic findings. Some experts suggest the DNA results may be incorrect due to contamination or the possibility of inbreeding in the royal family. Alternative theories include Kara Cooney’s claim that Tutankhamun was born from an incestuous relationship between Akhenaten and one of his daughters, Meritaten or Meketaten. Juan Belmonte argues the man in KV55 might be Smenkhkare, a possible co-ruler or successor of Akhenaten, making Tutankhamun his nephew instead of his son. Joyce Tyldesley questions the reliability of the DNA results and suggests Kiya may have been Tutankhamun’s mother, with the man in KV55 being Smenkhkare, not the son of Amenhotep III and Tiye.
Smenkhkare, who married Meritaten, may have been Akhenaten’s brother or son from an unknown wife. Some researchers believe Smenkhkare and the female pharaoh Neferneferuaten (believed to be Nefertiti) could be the same person.
Some historians, like Edward Wente and James Allen, have suggested Akhenaten may have married some of his daughters to father a male heir. While debated, similar practices occurred in the past, such as Amenhotep III marrying his daughter Sitamun and Ramesses II marrying his daughters. Meritaten is recorded as the Great Royal Wife of Smenkhkare and also appears with Akhenaten and Neferneferuaten on a box from Tutankhamun’s tomb. Letters from foreign rulers refer to Meritaten as “mistress of the house.” Early Egyptologists believed Akhenaten may have fathered a child with his daughter Meketaten, whose death at age ten to twelve is recorded in royal tombs. Some thought she died from childbirth, but no husband is known for Meketaten, leading to the assumption Akhenaten was the father. Aidan Dodson argues this is unlikely, as no tomb mentions the cause of death for its owner. Jacobus van Dijk suggests the infant depicted in Meketaten’s tomb may represent her soul.
Monuments originally dedicated to Kiya were later changed to honor Akhenaten’s daughters, Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten. These revised inscriptions mention a “junior” version of Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten. Some scholars believe this indicates Akhenaten fathered grandchildren, while others think these names were added to replace Kiya’s child, as no other records of these grandchildren exist.
Early life
Egyptologists have limited information about Akhenaten’s early life as prince Amenhotep. Donald B. Redford estimates that he was born before his father, Amenhotep III, reached his 25th year of rule, around 1363–1361 BC. This estimate is based on the likely early birth of Akhenaten’s first daughter. The only known reference to his name as "the King's Son Amenhotep" appears on a record from Amenhotep III’s Malkata palace, where some scholars believe he was born. Others suggest he was born in Memphis, where he may have been influenced by the worship of the sun god Ra practiced nearby in Heliopolis. However, Redford and James K. Hoffmeier note that Ra’s religious traditions were widespread across Egypt, so Akhenaten could have been influenced by solar worship even if he did not live near Heliopolis.
Some historians have studied who might have been Akhenaten’s tutor during his youth. They have suggested names such as scribes Heqareshu or Meryre II, the royal tutor Amenemotep, or the vizier Aperel. The only person confirmed to have served the prince was Parennefer, as noted in his tomb.
Egyptologist Cyril Aldred proposed that prince Amenhotep may have been a High Priest of Ptah in Memphis. However, no evidence supports this claim. It is known that Amenhotep’s brother, crown prince Thutmose, held this role before his death. If Amenhotep inherited his brother’s positions in preparation for becoming king, he may have taken over as high priest in Thutmose’s place. Aldred suggests that Akhenaten’s unique interest in art may have developed during his time serving Ptah, the god of craftsmen. High priests of Ptah were sometimes called "The Greatest of the Directors of Craftsmanship."
Reign
There is disagreement among scholars about whether Amenhotep IV became king of Egypt when his father, Amenhotep III, died or if they shared power for a time. Some experts, like Eric Cline, Nicholas Reeves, and Peter Dorman, believe that any shared rule between the two kings lasted only a short time, no more than two years. Others, such as Donald B. Redford and William J. Murnane, argue that there was no shared rule at all between Amenhotep IV and his father.
In 2014, archaeologists discovered the names of both Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV on a wall in the tomb of a high official named Amenhotep-Huy. Egyptian officials said this proved that Amenhotep IV shared power with his father for at least eight years. However, other Egyptologists later questioned this conclusion, suggesting that the inscription only meant the tomb was built during Amenhotep III’s reign and finished under Amenhotep IV’s rule.
Amenhotep IV likely became king around 1353 or 1351 BC. His age at the time is unknown, but estimates range from 10 to 23 years old. He was probably crowned in Thebes, though it is also possible he was crowned in Memphis or Armant.
At the start of his reign, Amenhotep IV followed traditions of Egyptian kings. He did not immediately change religious practices to focus only on the Aten, a sun god. Egyptologist Donald B. Redford believes this suggests Amenhotep IV’s religious changes were not planned before he became king. Evidence for this includes:
1. Inscriptions showing him worshipping multiple gods, such as Atum, Osiris, and Anubis, and texts referring to “the gods” and “every god and goddess.”
2. The High Priest of Amun still being active in the fourth year of his reign.
3. His early royal titles honoring Thebes, and his continued support for construction projects at the temple of Amun-Re in Karnak.
Artistic styles in tombs built during the first few years of Amenhotep IV’s reign remained traditional. For example, in the tomb of Ramose, he is shown seated on a throne, and in the tomb of Parennefer, he and his wife, Nefertiti, are depicted with the Aten represented as a sun disc.
While still worshipping other gods, Amenhotep IV began building new temples for the Aten. These included shrines in cities like Bubastis, Heliopolis, and Memphis, as well as a large temple complex at Karnak. The Aten temple complex, called the Per Aten, included several structures named Gempaaten, Hwt Benben, and others.
Around the second or third year of his reign, Amenhotep IV held a Sed festival. These festivals were rituals to celebrate a king’s strength and usually occurred around the 30th year of a reign. Scholars have different theories about why he held this festival so early. Some believe it showed a shared rule with his father, while others think it honored the Aten or marked the start of his religious reforms.
The last records referring to Amenhotep IV as Amenhotep IV are letters from Ipy, a high official in Memphis. These letters, dated to his fifth year of rule, reported that the royal estates in Memphis were in good condition. About a month later, a boundary stone at Akhetaten had the name Akhenaten carved on it, showing he changed his name between these two dates.
Amenhotep IV changed his royal titles to reflect his devotion to the Aten. His new name, Akhenaten, is debated by scholars. The word “akh” might mean “satisfied,” “effective spirit,” or “serviceable to,” so his name could mean “Aten is satisfied” or “Effective for the Aten.” Some historians, like Gertie Englund and Florence Friedman, believe his name means “Effective for the Aten” based on how he used the term in writings. Others, such as William F. Albright, suggest his name was miswritten and should be “Akhenjāti” instead.
Some of Amenhotep IV’s royal titles included:
– “Strong Bull of the Double Plumes”
– “Great of Kingship in Karnak”
– “Great of Kingship in Akhet-Aten”
– “Crowned in Heliopolis of the South” (Thebes)
– “Exalter of the Name of Aten”
– “Amun is Satisfied, Divine Lord of Thebes”
– “Effective for the Aten”
Around the same time he changed his name, on the thirteenth day of the fourth month of the growing season, Amenhotep IV issued a decree.
Atenism
In ancient Egypt, people worshipped a sun god with many names. Solar worship became more popular before Akhenaten, especially during the Eighteenth Dynasty and the time of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten’s father. During the New Kingdom, the king was linked to the sun disc. For example, one inscription called the pharaoh Hatshepsut the "female Re shining like the Disc," and Amenhotep III was described as "he who rises over every foreign land, Nebmare, the dazzling disc." During the Eighteenth Dynasty, a religious hymn to the sun appeared and became popular among Egyptians. However, Egyptologists question if the growing importance of the sun disc before Akhenaten influenced his religious policies. Amenhotep III used the royal title "Aten-Tjehen," meaning "the Dazzling Sun Disk," in his 30th year of rule. This showed his growing interest in the Aten god and helped raise its status from a minor god to a major one by giving it royal support. He also named his youngest daughter, born to his wife Tiye, Beketaten, meaning "Handmaid of Aten." However, Amenhotep III did not make the Aten the only god during his reign. His main religious devotion remained with Amun-Ra, a god combining the Theban deity Amun and the northern sun god Ra.
The development of Atenism, the religious belief centered on the Aten, can be seen through changes in how the Aten was shown in art. Egyptologist Donald B. Redford divided this into three stages: earliest, intermediate, and final. In the earliest stage, the sun disc was often shown resting on the head of Ra-Horakhty, the falcon-headed sun god, as was traditional. The god was unique but not the only god worshipped. In the intermediate stage, the Aten was elevated above other gods, and his name was placed in cartouches, symbols usually reserved for royal names. In the final stage, the Aten was shown as a sun disc with rays like arms ending in human hands. A new title for the Aten appeared: "the great living Disc which is in jubilee, lord of heaven and earth."
At the start of his reign, Amenhotep IV lived in Thebes, Egypt’s old capital, and allowed worship of traditional gods to continue. However, signs showed the Aten was becoming more important. For example, inscriptions in the tomb of Parennefer, a Theban official, said, "one measures the payments to every (other) god with a level measure, but for the Aten one measures so that it overflows," showing more favor toward the Aten than other gods. Near the Temple of Karnak, Amun-Ra’s main worship site, Amenhotep IV built temples for the Aten. These new temples had no roof, so worship of the Aten happened in sunlight, not in enclosed temple spaces as was common before. Later, his successors dismantled these buildings and used the materials to build parts of the Temple of Karnak. When archaeologists later removed these materials, they found 36,000 decorated blocks that preserved scenes and writings from the original Aten temple.
A major turning point in Amenhotep IV’s early reign was a speech he gave at the start of his second year as king. A copy of this speech was found on a pylon at the Karnak Temple Complex. Speaking to the royal court, scribes, or the people, Amenhotep IV claimed other gods were powerless and their temples had collapsed. He contrasted this with the Aten, who continued to move and exist forever. Egyptologists, like Donald B. Redford, compared this speech to a proclamation that explained the king’s later religious changes focused on the Aten. In his speech, Amenhotep IV said:
"The temples of the gods fallen to ruin, their bodies do not endure. Since the time of the ancestors, it is the wise man that knows these things. Behold, I, the king, am speaking so that I might inform you concerning the appearances of the gods. I know their temples, and I am versed in the writings, specifically, the inventory of their primeval bodies. And I have watched as they [the gods] have ceased their appearances, one after the other. All of them have stopped, except the god who gave birth to himself. And no one knows the mystery of how he performs his tasks. This god goes where he pleases and no one else knows his going. I approach him, the things which he has made. How exalted they are."
In Year Five of his reign, Amenhotep IV took steps to make the Aten Egypt’s only god. He ended the priesthoods of other gods and used their income to support the Aten. To show his loyalty, he changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten, meaning "Effective for the Aten." The Aten was also shown with symbols of a king, like cartouches around his name and a uraeus, a crown symbol. The Aten may have been honored during Akhenaten’s royal Sed festival. With the Aten as the only god, Akhenaten claimed to be the only link between the Aten and the people, a role seen before with Fifth Dynasty pharaohs like Nyuserre Ini, who claimed to be the only link between people and gods like Osiris and Ra.
By Year Nine of his reign, Akhenaten declared the Aten not just the supreme god but the only god to worship. He ordered the destruction of Amun’s temples and removed references to "gods" in inscriptions. This supported the new rule, which banned images except for the sun disc, which represented the Aten’s invisible spirit. All life on Earth was believed to depend on the Aten and sunlight. Representations of the Aten always included a note explaining that the sun as a creator could not be fully shown. The Aten’s name was also written differently, removing links to other sun gods like Re-Horakhty and Shu. The Aten became a mix of beliefs about Re-Horakhty, a universal sun god, and Shu, the god of the sky and sunlight.
Akhenaten’s beliefs about the Aten are best seen in the Great Hymn to the Aten. The hymn was found in the tomb of Ay, one of Akhenaten’s successors, though Egyptologists believe it may have been written earlier.
Artistic depictions
Art styles from the time of Akhenaten and his rulers, called Amarna art, are very different from earlier Egyptian art. These artworks show more realistic, natural, and expressive details, especially in animals, plants, and people. They show more movement and action, even for the king and common people, unlike the older art, which often showed rulers as still and unmoving. In traditional art, a pharaoh’s divine power was shown by appearing calm and unchanging.
Akhenaten’s artwork looks very different from other pharaohs. Usually, Egyptian rulers were shown as young, strong, and perfect in appearance. However, Akhenaten is shown with a large stomach, wide hips, thin legs, thick thighs, large breasts, a long face, and wide lips. These features are not typical for a pharaoh.
Some people have suggested that Akhenaten and his family may have had medical conditions, such as aromatase excess syndrome, sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, or Antley–Bixler syndrome. In 2010, genetic tests on a mummy believed to be Akhenaten did not find signs of these conditions, but the results have been debated.
Instead, some scholars, like Dominic Montserrat, believe the unusual features in Akhenaten’s artwork are symbolic. Since the god Aten was called “the mother and father of all humankind,” artists may have made Akhenaten look androgynous (having both male and female traits) to represent the god’s qualities. This would show that Akhenaten carried the god’s life-giving powers on Earth. Akhenaten used the title “The Unique One of Re” and may have wanted his artists to create images that contrasted him with the common people by breaking from traditional royal looks.
Other court members, especially the royal family, are also shown in exaggerated and stylized ways, unlike older art. For the first time in Egyptian history, the royal family is shown in everyday, relaxed, and affectionate scenes, such as holding hands or kissing.
Nefertiti, Akhenaten’s wife, is shown in unusual ways. She appears beside the king or with her daughters, doing actions usually reserved for male pharaohs, like “smiting the enemy.” This suggests she had a special status as a queen. Early art shows her looking similar to Akhenaten, but later images include details that make her appearance unique. It is still unclear whether her beauty in these images is realistic or idealized.
Speculative theories
Akhenaten's role as a religious leader has led to many ideas and theories, from academic suggestions to less serious ones. Some believe the religion he promoted focused on one god, the Aten, but others think he practiced a form of worship that acknowledged other gods, even though he only honored the Aten. He did not deny the existence of other gods, only chose not to worship them.
Some scholars have suggested that Akhenaten's religious ideas may have influenced later beliefs, such as those in Judaism. Sigmund Freud, a famous psychologist, wrote in his book Moses and Monotheism that Moses might have been a priest who followed Akhenaten’s beliefs. Freud believed that after Akhenaten’s death, Moses and his followers left Egypt. He argued that Akhenaten’s efforts to promote worship of one god helped shape the religious ideas later seen in the Bible. This idea became widely known after Freud’s book was published.
There are similarities between Akhenaten’s Great Hymn to the Aten and the Biblical Psalm 104, but experts debate whether this connection means they are related. Some have compared Akhenaten’s relationship with the Aten to the relationship between Jesus and God in Christianity, especially when Atenism is seen as focusing on one god. Donald B. Redford noted that some people have thought of Akhenaten as a precursor to Jesus, because Akhenaten called himself "the son of the sole god." Other scholars, like James Henry Breasted, Arthur Weigall, and Thomas Mann, have made similar comparisons.
In recent years, scholars such as Brian Fagan and Robert Alter have revisited these ideas. In 1997, Donald B. Redford concluded that earlier ideas about Akhenaten being a religious teacher, a mentor to Moses, or a figure like Jesus were based on limited evidence. He stated that there is little proof Akhenaten influenced the full monotheism found in the Bible, which developed much later.
Akhenaten’s unusual artistic portrayal, which differs from the typical strong, athletic image of Egyptian pharaohs, has led some to believe he had a medical condition. Some experts have suggested illnesses such as Fröhlich’s syndrome or Marfan syndrome. Cyril Aldred proposed that Akhenaten might have had Fröhlich’s syndrome, which can cause a long jaw and feminine features. However, this is unlikely because the condition causes sterility, but Akhenaten had many children, as shown by historical records.
Burridge suggested Akhenaten may have had Marfan syndrome, which causes tallness, long faces, and other physical traits. This condition does not cause sterility or mental issues. Some artwork shows features that match these symptoms. However, DNA tests on Tutankhamun, Akhenaten’s grandson, did not find evidence of Marfan syndrome.
By the early 2000s, most Egyptologists believed Akhenaten’s unusual appearance in art was not due to a medical condition but was instead a deliberate artistic choice. His androgynous look in artwork was meant to symbolize the Aten’s spiritual qualities, which were seen as both male and female.
Cultural depictions
Akhenaten's life, achievements, and influence have been recorded and shown in many ways. He has appeared in both serious and popular works of culture since he was rediscovered in the 19th century AD. Akhenaten, along with Cleopatra and Alexander the Great, is one of the most commonly written about and imagined ancient people.
In books called Amarna novels, stories about Akhenaten often take two forms. One type focuses on his personal growth and the challenges he faced while creating Atenism and the city of Akhetaten, as well as his conflicts with the Theban Amun cult. Another type describes what happened after his rule and the changes he made to religion. There is also a difference between stories written before the 1920s and those written later. Before the 1920s, artists often showed Akhenaten as a mysterious or ghostly figure. After the 1920s, more archaeological discoveries gave artists details about his life, leading to more realistic portrayals. Examples of earlier works include In the Tombs of the Kings (1910) by Lilian Bagnall, A Wife Out of Egypt (1913), and There Was a King in Egypt (1918) by Norma Lorimer. Later works include Akhnaton King of Egypt (1924) by Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Joseph and His Brothers (1933–1943) by Thomas Mann, Akhnaton (1973) by Agatha Christie, and Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth (1985) by Naguib Mahfouz. Akhenaten also appears in The Egyptian (1945) by Mika Waltari, which was made into a movie in 1954. In this movie, Akhenaten, played by Michael Wilding, is shown as a figure similar to Jesus Christ and early Christians.
A version of Akhenaten that focuses on his appearance, based on early Western interest in his androgynous looks and theories about his possible homosexuality, influenced modern art. Two famous works are the screenplay Akenaten (1975) by Derek Jarman and the opera Akhnaten (1984) by Philip Glass. These works were influenced by theories by Immanuel Velikovsky, who compared Akhenaten to Oedipus, though Glass said he did not believe Velikovsky’s theories and was more interested in their dramatic potential.
In the 21st century, Akhenaten appeared as an enemy in comic books and video games. For example, he is the main villain in the comic series Marvel: The End (2003). He also appears as an enemy in the video game Assassin's Creed Origins: The Curse of the Pharaohs (2017).
The American death metal band Nile created a song called Cast Down the Heretic on their 2005 album Annihilation of the Wicked, which describes Akhenaten being judged, punished, and erased from history by the gods he replaced with Aten. He also appears on the cover of their 2009 album Those Whom the Gods Detest.