Anthroposophy is a spiritual new religious movement started in the early 1900s by Rudolf Steiner, a spiritual thinker. It believes in a spiritual world that can be understood through thinking, not just through the senses. People who follow anthroposophy try to learn about the spiritual world using ideas that are not based on what can be seen or felt. Supporters say their ideas can be checked through logical discussion and aim for clear, scientific-like explanations. However, experts in knowledge and those who study false science often call these ideas pseudoscientific.
Anthroposophy comes from German idealism, Western and Eastern spiritual traditions, different religions, and modern Theosophy. Steiner named it "anthroposophy" from Greek words meaning "human wisdom" to show its focus on human values. He described it as "a scientific study of the spiritual world." Others have called it a "philosophy and cultural movement," a "spiritual movement," a "spiritual science," "a system of thought," and other terms. Some critics have called it "a speculative and mystical system" or "a spiritualist movement."
Anthroposophy's ideas have been used in education (like Waldorf and Camphill schools), environmental protection, banking, agriculture, organizational work, the arts, and other areas.
The Anthroposophical Society is based at the Goetheanum in Dornach, Switzerland. People who support anthroposophy include writers like Saul Bellow and Selma Lagerlöf, artists like Piet Mondrian and Hilma af Klint, filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky, child psychiatrist Eva Frommer, music therapist Maria Schüppel, religious leader Vydūnas, and former president of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia. Both critics and supporters agree that Steiner made many anti-racist statements, but his writings also contain many contradictions and inconsistencies about race and nationality.
Religion historian Olav Hammer has called anthroposophy "the most important esoteric society in European history." Scientists, doctors, and philosophers like Michael Shermer, Michael Ruse, Edzard Ernst, David Gorski, and Simon Singh have criticized anthroposophy's use in medicine, biology, agriculture, and education, calling it dangerous and pseudoscientific. Ideas from Steiner that are not supported by modern science include beliefs about racial evolution, clairvoyance (Steiner claimed he could see things without using his senses), and the Atlantis myth.
History
Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy, developed his ideas about free will in a book called Philosophy of Freedom. He believed that free will comes from personal experiences, especially those gained through creative thinking. Steiner was known as a moral individualist, meaning he valued personal ethics and choices.
By the early 1900s, Steiner focused more on spiritual topics. His work attracted attention from people interested in spiritual ideas, including the Theosophical Society. From 1900 onward, his ideas were well received by Theosophists, and he became the secretary of the German section of the society in 1902. Under his leadership, membership grew from a few people to 69 lodges.
In 1907, a disagreement arose between Steiner and the Theosophical Society. The society emphasized Eastern and Indian spiritual traditions, while Steiner wanted to focus on Christianity and science. The split became permanent when Annie Besant, the society’s president, claimed that a boy named Jiddu Krishnamurti was the reincarnated Christ. Steiner strongly disagreed, calling the comparison nonsense. Krishnamurti later also rejected the claim. Because of these differences, Steiner left the Theosophical Society in 1912 and formed the Anthroposophical Society.
By this time, Steiner was respected as a spiritual teacher and expert in the occult. He described his experiences with the Akashic Records, a spiritual record of the world’s history and future. Steiner believed that spiritual growth could be achieved through ethical discipline, meditation, and concentration. He taught that moral development must come before spiritual growth.
In 1912, Steiner created the Anthroposophical Society. After World War I, members used his ideas to start movements in education, farming, and medicine. By 1923, a disagreement formed between older members, who focused on inner development, and younger members, who wanted to engage in social change. To address this, Steiner created a School for Spiritual Science and wrote a meditation called the Foundation Stone Meditation, which remains important in anthroposophy.
Steiner died in 1925. During World War II, the Nazi government banned the Anthroposophical Society and its activities in Europe. However, some Nazis, like Rudolf Hess, supported anthroposophy. Despite this, few anthroposophists were part of the Nazi Party. The Nazi regime had mixed views about anthroposophy, with some members opposing it and others supporting it.
Anthroposophists were targeted by the SD and Gestapo but were treated less harshly than other occult groups. Some anthroposophist authors continued to publish during the war, though they faced disruptions. While the Nazis opposed certain spiritual practices, they were not entirely against supernatural studies, as long as they were controlled by the state.
Some anthroposophists, like Marie Steiner-von Sivers and Guenther Wachsmuth, supported the Nazi regime. This led to some anthroposophists being allowed to continue their work despite the regime’s restrictions. However, they still faced challenges from Nazis who opposed their beliefs.
Central ideas
Anthroposophical supporters aim to apply the clear methods of science to understand human soul experiences and spiritual events. Steiner believed this required developing new abilities to perceive spiritual things objectively, which he thought was still possible for people today. He identified three steps in this process: imagination, inspiration, and intuition. Steiner believed findings from this type of spiritual research should be explained in a way that can be understood and judged similarly to scientific results.
Steiner hoped to create a spiritual movement that would free individuals from relying on outside authorities. He thought human reasoning allowed people to understand spiritual research independently, avoiding dependence on someone else, such as himself.
Steiner compared the anthroposophical approach to both conventional mysticism, which he saw as too vague for precise knowledge, and natural science, which he believed was limited to what can be sensed through the physical senses.
In Theosophy, Steiner described humans as having a physical body made from substances from the inorganic world; a life body (also called the etheric body), shared by all living things, including plants; a bearer of sentience or consciousness (also called the astral body), shared by all animals; and the ego, which gives humans the unique ability to be self-aware.
Anthroposophy describes the development of human consciousness over time. Early stages of human evolution included an intuitive understanding of reality, including the ability to see spiritual things clearly. Over time, humans have relied more on intellectual thinking, leading to a decrease in intuitive or spiritual experiences, which have become rare. While intellectual thinking was once helpful, it has led to overreliance on abstract ideas and a loss of connection to both natural and spiritual realities. To progress further, new abilities are needed that combine clear thinking with imagination, inspiration, and intuition.
Anthroposophy teaches that the human spirit is reborn in different stages of existence. After the physical body dies, the human spirit reviews past life events as they were experienced. A complex change occurs between reviewing the past and preparing for the next life. The individual's karmic condition determines the choice of parents, physical body, and abilities in the next life, which provide the challenges and opportunities needed for growth, including tasks chosen for the future.
Steiner described conditions that influence the relationship between a person's lives, or karma.
The anthroposophical view of evolution states that all animals evolved from an early, simple form. Humans, being the least specialized, have the closest connection to the original form. Unlike the Darwinian idea that humans evolved from animals, anthroposophy teaches that all animals evolved from the same spiritual archetype. This archetype was initially without physical form but later took on material existence on Earth. In this view, human evolution has occurred alongside Earth's development throughout its history.
Steiner said human evolution involves the gradual movement of a spiritual being into a physical body. This process is a "descent" from a spiritual world into the material world. The evolution of animals did not come before human evolution but happened alongside it. Humans are not the final result of animal evolution but are, in a way, its cause. The stages of human incarnation are reflected in the fossil record, which includes fish, reptiles, mammals, and human remains.
Anthroposophy adapted Theosophy's idea of world development and human evolution in cycles. The first phase of the world was only heat. The next phase had light and gas. Then came liquid and sound energy. The current phase has solid matter. This process is believed to have led to the development of human culture.
Anthroposophy sees good as the balance between two opposing forces that influence world and human evolution. These are often represented as Lucifer and Ahriman. Lucifer is a light spirit that inspires creativity and spirituality but can also lead to pride. Ahriman is a dark spirit that encourages material focus but also promotes intellect and technology. Both have negative effects when their influence becomes extreme, but they are necessary for human freedom. Each person must find balance between these forces, with help from the Representative of Humanity, also known as the Christ being, a spiritual entity that harmonizes the two extremes.
Claimed applications
As noted by Hammer, this means that anthroposophy makes many claims about a wide range of subjects, including topics usually studied by scientists. However, these claims are not subject to scientific testing because of Steiner's idea that these subjects are divided into two separate areas (Hammer 2004, 227).
Libération described Steiner's ideas as unrealistic theories. It also noted that this did not stop his ideas from gaining support.
There is a school movement with more than 1,000 Steiner or Waldorf schools (the name "Waldorf" comes from the first school, started in Stuttgart in 1919) in about 60 countries. Most of these schools are private. Sixteen of these schools are part of the United Nations' UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network, which supports education programs to improve learning worldwide. In some European countries, Australia, and parts of the United States and Canada, Waldorf schools receive full or partial government funding as public or charter schools.
These schools have been started in many different communities, such as in the poor neighborhoods of São Paulo and wealthy areas of major cities. They are also found in countries like India, Egypt, Australia, the Netherlands, Mexico, and South Africa. While many early Waldorf schools were started by teachers, most schools today are started and supported by parents. Waldorf schools are among the most visible examples of anthroposophy.
Benjamin Lazier calls Steiner a "maverick educator."
Biodynamic agriculture is a type of farming based on non-scientific ideas. It was the first intentional form of organic farming, started in 1924 when Rudolf Steiner gave a series of lectures published as The Agriculture Course. Steiner is considered one of the founders of modern organic farming.
"Himmler, Hess, and Darré all promoted biodynamic (anthroposophic) farming as an alternative to industrial farming." "[…] with the help of the Reich League for Biodynamic Agriculture, […] Pancke, Pohl, and Hans Merkel created biodynamic farms in areas like Dachau, Ravensbrück, and Auschwitz concentration camps. Many of these farms were run by anthroposophists."
"Steiner's 'biodynamic agriculture,' which focuses on 'restoring the mystical connection between Earth and the cosmos,' was widely used in the Third Reich (28)."
Anthroposophical medicine is a type of alternative medicine based on non-scientific and mystical ideas, not on science-based medicine. Most anthroposophic medicines are highly diluted, like homeopathic remedies. While these medicines themselves may be harmless, using them instead of real medical treatments is ineffective and can lead to harm. One of the most studied uses is mistletoe extract for cancer treatment, but research has found no evidence that it helps. Joseph A. Schwarcz calls Steiner a "quack."
In 1922, Ita Wegman started an anthroposophical center for special needs education called the Sonnenhof in Switzerland. In 1940, Karl König started the Camphill Movement in Scotland. This movement has grown, and today there are over 100 Camphill communities and other anthroposophical homes for people with special needs in about 22 countries. Karl König, Thomas Weihs, and others have written about the ideas behind special education.
Steiner designed about 13 buildings in an organic-expressionist architectural style. His most famous designs are the two Goetheanum buildings in Dornach, Switzerland. Thousands of other buildings have been created by later architects influenced by anthroposophy.
Architects influenced by anthroposophy include Imre Makovecz in Hungary, Hans Scharoun and Joachim Eble in Germany, Erik Asmussen in Sweden, Kenji Imai in Japan, Thomas Rau, Anton Alberts, and Max van Huut in the Netherlands, Christopher Day and Camphill Architects in the UK, Thompson and Rose in the U.S., Denis Bowman in Canada, and Walter Burley Griffin and Gregory Burgess in Australia. The ING House in Amsterdam, designed by an anthroposophical architect, has won awards for its eco-friendly design and approach to self-sustaining buildings.
Along with Marie von Sivers, Steiner developed eurythmy, a performance art that combines dance, speech, and music.
Today, there are banks, companies, charities, and schools around the world that use Steiner's ideas about economic organizations to create businesses that aim to be socially responsible and help the global economy. The first anthroposophical bank was the Gemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken in Bochum, Germany, started in 1974. Other socially responsible banks based on anthroposophy include Triodos Bank in the Netherlands (founded in 1980), Cultura Sparebank in Norway (started in 1982), La Nef in France, and RSF Social Finance in San Francisco.
Harvard Business School historian Geoffrey Jones noted that Steiner and later anthroposophical entrepreneurs had a major influence on the creation of businesses in organic food, eco-friendly architecture, and sustainable finance.
Bernard Lievegoed, a psychiatrist, created a method for improving organizations and institutions based on Steiner's ideas about a three-part social structure. This work is represented by the NPI Institute for Organizational Development in the Netherlands and similar groups in other countries.
There are also anthroposophical movements to improve speech and drama. These include the work of Marie Steiner-von Sivers (known as "Creative Speech") and the Chekhov Method, developed by Michael Chekhov (nephew of Anton Chekhov).
Anthroposophic painting, inspired by Rudolf Steiner, was a major feature of the first Goetheanum's dome. This style often starts with covering a surface in color, from which images are gradually created. These images often have symbolic or spiritual meaning. Transparent paints, often made from plants, are preferred. Rudolf Steiner appointed the English sculptor Edith Maryon as head of the School of Fine Art at the Goetheanum. Together, they created a 9-meter-tall sculpture titled The Representative of Humanity, displayed at the Goetheanum.
Social goals
After World War I, Rudolf Steiner was very active and well known in Germany. He gave many lectures and shared ideas about improving society. Steiner strongly opposed nationalism, which he believed was no longer useful. Instead, he supported social unity through personal freedom. A petition calling for major changes to Germany’s laws and sharing his ideas was widely shared. This petition was signed by Hermann Hesse and others. His most important book about social change is Toward Social Renewal.
Anthroposophy continues to focus on improving society by keeping the areas of culture, human rights, and the economy separate but strong. It promotes specific goals in each of these areas:
In practice, the cultural area needed to have a lot of control over the economy, and some rights had to be reduced.
According to Cees Leijenhorst, Steiner proposed a new way of thinking about politics and society that avoided the extremes of capitalism and socialism.
Steiner’s ideas influenced Italian Fascism, which used parts of his beliefs about race and opposition to democracy. Some fascist leaders, like Giovanni Antonio Colonna di Cesarò and Ettore Martinoli, supported Steiner’s ideas. Many members of the occult pro-fascist UR Group were also Anthroposophists.
Egil Asprem noted that Steiner’s teachings had an authoritarian tone and criticized "materialism," "liberalism," and cultural "degeneration." For example, anthroposophical medicine was created to oppose the traditional medical practices of the time.
The idea of Social Threefolding has been described as an unclear plan. Steiner believed in a spiritual group of leaders who would guide society. Some people said his political ideas were unrealistic.
Anthroposophy has its own political beliefs. For example, the organization Demeter International promotes the idea of Social Threefolding. The General Anthroposophical Society also supports this idea.
Steiner believed that modern capitalism needed to be replaced with a more humane economic system.
The mix of ideas in Anthroposophy sometimes resembled other economic and political models from that time. Some anthroposophists imagined a society based on national unity, while others supported a system that protected traditional values against Western-style democracy. In these ways, Steiner’s ideas reflect a version of private property and leadership guided by spiritual leaders.
Staudenmaier (2009) wrote that Steiner’s speeches about the threefold order had many contradictions. He taught different messages to workers and business owners. He believed the threefold system would help bring workers into a society based on class structure.
Esoteric path
Many authors believe that Anthroposophy was started by a spiritual teacher named Rudolf Steiner. From 2012 to 2022, people who follow Anthroposophy have always said that Steiner was not a guru.
According to Steiner, a spiritual world exists alongside the physical world, and both are changing over time. He believed that the spiritual world could be studied through direct experience if people practiced strict rules for being ethical and thinking clearly. Steiner described many exercises meant to help people develop these skills. These ideas are most fully explained in his book How To Know Higher Worlds. The goal of these exercises is to help people grow their ability to think deeply through meditation and careful observation. Steiner said that details about the spiritual world could be discovered and shared, but not in a way that is completely perfect, just like scientific discoveries.
Anthroposophy is a way of learning that helps people connect the spiritual part of themselves with the spiritual part of the universe. People who follow Anthroposophy feel that certain questions about humans and the universe are as important to them as needing food or water.
Steiner believed that his reports about spiritual experiences could help others who wanted to explore the spiritual world. He said that combining spiritual practices (like focusing on an object such as a seed), improving one’s morals (controlling thoughts, emotions, and will while being open and patient), and learning from other spiritual researchers would best help someone grow spiritually. He always stressed that spiritual practices should not interfere with daily responsibilities. Steiner also talked about the difference between true and false ways to explore the spiritual world.
In Anthroposophy, art is seen as a possible way to connect the spiritual world with the physical world.
A person who wants to grow spiritually must first try to stop holding onto old habits. Then, they must develop new habits by constantly thinking about them. These habits must become part of their character so they can change their soul through their own willpower. This process should be as objective as testing a chemical in a science experiment. A person who has never tried to change their soul or who gives up quickly after failing to develop qualities like patience, strength, or logical thinking will never truly understand these spiritual truths.
— Rudolf Steiner, On the Inner Life
Steiner said that to begin a spiritual journey, a person must be willing to study seriously, respect facts, and take responsibility. To make progress on this path, it is important to develop the following qualities in balance:
Steiner saw meditation as a way to strengthen the power of thinking. By focusing on an idea, feeling, or intention, a person can reach a state of pure thinking, which is seen in areas like mathematics. Steiner believed that knowledge of the physical world comes from connecting what we see and what we think. The Anthroposophy path includes three more stages of knowledge that go beyond what we normally sense, but these stages may not happen in the same order for everyone.
Steiner described many exercises he believed would help with spiritual growth. Other followers of Anthroposophy have added more exercises over time. A key rule is that for every step forward in spiritual understanding, a person must take three steps in moral growth. Steiner said that moral growth shows how much control a person has over their inner life and how well they can live in harmony with others. It also helps a person tell the difference between real spiritual experiences and false ones, such as illusions. This ability helps a person separate their own opinions from what is truly real in any experience.
Place in Western philosophy
Steiner expanded on Goethe's idea that imagination can combine the visible form of a thing (its outer appearance) with the concept we have of that thing (its inner structure or nature). Steiner added that thinking can develop further when a person observes their own thought process. "The part of the mind that observes and the thought being observed become the same, so that thinking becomes a way of perceiving and perceiving becomes a way of thinking."
In Steiner's view, the division between the person and the thing being studied can be overcome through inner activity, even though all human experience starts with this division. Steiner examined the shift from thinking influenced by outside experiences to what he called sense-free thinking. He described thoughts without sensory details, such as those in mathematics or logic, as actions that are free from the influence of the senses. Steiner believed that sense-free thinking was the source of free will.
Some of the foundations for Steiner's later anthroposophical work are found in his book Philosophy of Freedom. In his early writings, Steiner aimed to resolve what he saw as the conflict between Cartesian idealism and Kantian subjectivism by developing Goethe's view of humans as both natural and supernatural beings. Humans are natural because they are products of nature, and supernatural because their ability to think allows nature to reflect on itself through philosophy, art, and science. Steiner was one of the first European philosophers to address the division between the person and the thing being studied in Western thought. Though not widely known among philosophers, his ideas influenced Owen Barfield, who in turn affected the Inklings, a group of Christian writers at Oxford that included J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis.
Christian and Jewish mystical traditions also shaped the development of anthroposophy.
Steiner believed that the clarity of scientific thinking could be applied to spiritual experiences, which he saw as coming from a spiritual world that exists independently. He identified mathematics as the basis for his understanding of spiritual knowledge, since mathematics reaches certainty through thinking itself, not through observation.
Anthroposophy considers mainstream science to be Ahrimanic. Steiner strongly criticized sociology and economics. "[H]e demonised the world promoted by scientific rationalism."
Relationship to religion
The Esoteric School of the Anthroposophical Society came from groups connected to high-level Masonry, including the Theosophical Society and Ordo Templi Orientis. Rudolf Steiner held Masonic degrees 33 and 95.
Steiner respected all religions and cultural traditions, but he believed Western traditions had developed to meet modern needs. He taught that Christ’s mission on Earth was to bring individual awareness, which he saw as a key step in human development. He wrote:
Spiritual science does not aim to replace Christianity. Instead, it seeks to help people understand Christianity better. Through spiritual science, we learn that Christ is the center of life on Earth and that Christianity is the most important religion for the future. Spiritual science also shows that earlier religions found unity in Christianity. It does not try to replace Christianity but to help people understand it more deeply.
Anthroposophy teaches that there is a being who unites all religions, but this being is not tied to any specific faith. Steiner called this being the "Representative of Humanity" or the "good spirit."
Steiner’s views on Christianity differ from traditional beliefs. Some scholars, like Monty Waldin and Anthony Mellors, say parts of Steiner’s ideas about Jesus and the Bible are considered heretical by mainstream Christians. The Catholic Church also views Anthroposophy as heretical. Steiner believed Christ will never have a physical body again.
Theosophy and Anthroposophy are described by some scholars as forms of modern Gnosticism. Jane Gilmer said both Rudolf Steiner and Carl Jung were influenced by ancient Gnostic ideas. Gilles Quispel called Theosophy a pagan version of Gnosticism and Anthroposophy a Christian one. Maria Carlson stated that Theosophy and Anthroposophy are Gnostic because they separate Spirit from Matter. R. McL. Wilson and others agree that Steiner was influenced by Gnosticism.
Robert A. McDermott said Anthroposophy is linked to Christian Rosicrucianism. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke wrote that Steiner combined Theosophy with Gnostic Christianity, Rosicrucianism, and German philosophy. Gary Lachman called Anthroposophy a "Christianized version of Theosophy."
Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke described Anthroposophy as a modern version of ancient Gnosticism, especially the Valentinian school. Geoffrey Ahern said Anthroposophy is part of neo-Gnosticism, which is connected to Western occultism. Stefanie von Schnurbein agreed that Steiner promoted Gnostic ideas about Christianity.
Was Steiner a Gnostic? Some say yes because he focused on personal spiritual experiences of Christ. Others say no because he did not support Gnosticism’s belief in a harmful material world or secret knowledge. Steiner criticized early Gnostic Christianity for not recognizing Jesus as a real human being.
According to Steiner, Christ’s role is to help the world move toward the Age of Aquarius, while Gnostics believed Christ’s mission was to save humanity from God. Elizabeth Dipple described Steiner’s system as a mix of neo-Platonism, Gnosticism, and spiritualism. Heiner Ullrich and others called Steiner a "neo-Platonic Gnostic." Carl Abrahamsson said Steiner believed in a Gnostic Christ.
Steiner’s theology focused on "redemption through sin," and he criticized some Christians for losing the spiritual heart of Christianity. Catholic scholars see Anthroposophy as part of the New Age movement. George D. Chryssides and others consider Steiner a New Age thinker or its early influence. Roger E. Olson and Dominic Corrywright agree that Steiner’s ideas are linked to the New Age. The New Age Encyclopedia lists him as a key figure.
Wouter Hanegraaff noted that Steiner fits one definition of New Age but not another, as he did not fully adopt the psychological ideas of New Thought.
Critics of Steiner, past and present, argue he was a pseudo-scientist who claimed to access spiritual knowledge beyond the physical world. Some say he supported ideas that later influenced Hitler and National Socialism.
Rudolf Steiner was a strong supporter of pan-German nationalism and never denied this. He was part of a group that promoted racist and anti-Semitic ideas, such as the Guido von List Society. Some anthroposophists believed Jewish culture was harmful to spiritual progress.
Steiner wrote about Judaism and Jewish issues throughout his life. He opposed antisemitism but believed Judaism had no place in the modern world, advocating for Jewish assimilation into broader society. He supported Émile Zola’s stance in the Dreyfus affair. Steiner saw Judaism as important to Western modernity but argued that future spirituality would require a different approach.
Reception
People who support Anthroposophy include authors, artists, and scientists such as Saul Bellow, Selma Lagerlöf, Andrei Bely, Joseph Beuys, Owen Barfield, architect Walter Burley Griffin, Wassily Kandinsky, Andrei Tarkovsky, Bruno Walter, Right Livelihood Award winners Sir George Trevelyan and Ibrahim Abouleish, and child psychiatrist Eva Frommer.
The historian of religion Olav Hammer has called Anthroposophy "the most important esoteric society in European history." However, authors, scientists, and physicians such as Michael Shermer, Michael Ruse, Edzard Ernst, David Gorski, and Simon Singh have criticized Anthroposophy's use in medicine, biology, agriculture, and education as dangerous and not based on science. Others, including former Waldorf student Dan Dugan and historian Geoffrey Ahern, have criticized Anthroposophy itself as a harmful movement that opposes reason and science.
Zaleski and Zaleski wrote: "Steiner rewrote the history of the world, describing lost ages and unknown civilizations. He filled this history with ideas about reincarnation, karma, the astral planes, the Akashic Record, and other common themes in European occult traditions."
Though Rudolf Steiner studied natural science at the Vienna Technical University, his doctorate was in epistemology, and most of his work focused on philosophy rather than the physical sciences. In his later writings, when he discussed science, he often promoted phenomenological or Goethean science as an alternative to the materialistic science of his time.
Steiner’s main interest was using scientific methods to explore inner experiences and spiritual worlds. He called Anthroposophy "Geisteswissenschaft" (science of the mind or cultural/spiritual science), a term typically used in German to describe the humanities and social sciences.
Whether Anthroposophy qualifies as a spiritual science has been debated. Freda Easton explained that accepting Anthroposophy as a science depends on whether one agrees with Steiner’s view that science involves expanding human consciousness to experience the spiritual world.
Sven Ove Hansson argued that Anthroposophy lacks a scientific basis because its ideas are not based on observations, cannot be tested, or repeated. Carlo Willmann noted that Anthroposophy’s methods rely on spiritual investigations, making it impossible to validate through conventional scientific methods. Peter Schneider countered that if a non-physical realm exists, Steiner’s claim that spiritual experiences are accessible through normal consciousness might be valid.
Olav Hammer stated that Anthroposophy pushes "scientism" further than any other esoteric movement by claiming clairvoyant abilities and placing natural science under "spiritual science." He also noted that practices like anthroposophic medicine and biodynamic agriculture are supported partly by ethical and ecological values, not purely by science.
Steiner believed spiritual vision is hard for others to achieve but encouraged open-minded exploration and rational testing of spiritual research. He also urged others to train spiritually to apply his methods and reach similar results.
Anthony Storr described Anthroposophy as "so eccentric, so unsupported by evidence, so manifestly bizarre" that rational skeptics consider it delusional. He compared Steiner’s ideas to Einstein’s, which were confirmed by experiments, but noted Steiner’s ideas remained subjective and unverified.
Dan Dugan said Steiner promoted pseudoscientific claims, including those taught in Waldorf schools. Some critics argue that Anthroposophy’s epistemology is "rationalized mysticism" or "an arcane pseudoscience based on medieval mysticism." Others call it "Gnostic scientism" or "Rudolf Steiner’s innovative doctrine that combined fashionable mysticism with pseudoscience." A French author described it as "a clever mix of pseudoscience, esotericism, and mysticism."
Two German scholars called Anthroposophy "the most successful form of 'alternative' religion in the twentieth century." Others said it "aspires to the status of religious dogma." Maria Carlson called it a "positivistic religion" with a "seemingly logical theology based on pseudoscience."
Scholars like Swartz, Brandt, Hammer, and others classify Anthroposophy as a religion. They also call it a "settled new religious movement," while Martin Gardner and others label it a "cult." Some scholars refer to it as a "new religious movement" or "new spiritual movement." In 1924, it was labeled a "new religious movement" and "occultist movement." Helmut Zander noted that Anthroposophy’s theory and practice show religious traits and that Steiner would not deny this. Zander also said Steiner’s book Geheimwissenschaft (Occult Science) includes his ideas about the origin of the universe. Hammer observed that Anthroposophy combines occultism and resembles post-Blavatskyan Theosophy (e.g., Annie Besant and Charles Webster Leadbeater). Zander claimed Steiner used ideas from theosophical texts, presenting them as his own spiritual insights. For example, when the Wright brothers flew airplanes in 1903, Steiner revised his earlier descriptions of airships from his Atlantis story to match modern technology.
One author said the question of whether Anthroposophy is a religion cannot be answered with a simple "yes" or "no."
As a spiritual movement, Anthroposophy has sometimes been called a "religious philosophy." In 1998, the group People for Legal and Non-Sectarian Schools (PLANS) sued to claim Anthroposophy is a religion, arguing Waldorf schools should not be funded by public money. The lawsuit was dismissed in 2012 because it failed to prove Anthroposophy is a religion. A 2012 legal paper called this decision provisional and disagreed with it, stating Anthroposophy was declared "not a religion" due to outdated legal standards. Another author disagreed with this conclusion.