Apocrypha are writings connected to the Bible but not included in the official list of holy books. Some of these writings may have uncertain authorship or authenticity. In Christianity, the term "apocryphal" (from the Greek word meaning "hidden") was first used to describe writings meant for private reading rather than public church services. These writings were helpful for teaching Christians but were not always part of the official holy books at first.

The word "apocryphal" began being used in the late 1500s to describe things of uncertain truth, such as stories or writings that might be false or not accepted by religious groups. It can describe any book that claims to be holy but is not included in the official list of holy books accepted by the author. A related term, "pseudepigrapha," refers to writings where the authorship is incorrect or falsely claimed.

In Christianity, the term "Apocrypha" refers to a group of books sometimes placed between the Old and New Testaments in the Bible. The official status of these books took longer to decide. The Catholic Church, Orthodox Churches, and the Church of the East accept some of these books as deuterocanonical (officially recognized later). Some Protestant traditions reject these books entirely, while others consider them useful for teaching but not part of the official holy books.

Etymology

The word "apocrypha" comes from the Medieval Latin adjective apocryphus, meaning "secret" or "not officially accepted." This term was borrowed from the Greek word apokryphos, which means "private" and comes from the verb apokryptein, meaning "to hide away." The word is formed from two parts: apo, meaning "away," and kryptein, meaning "to hide or conceal."

In ancient Christian times, the word "apocrypha" referred to writings that were read in private, not in public church services. Over time, the meaning of the word changed. In English, it began to describe texts that were seen as mysterious, questionable, or even heretical, especially because of how Protestant leaders viewed non-official religious writings.

The adjective apocryphal was first used to describe writings that were kept secret because they contained knowledge considered too sacred or complex for most people. For example, followers of a religious teacher named Prodicus claimed they had access to hidden books written by Zoroaster, an ancient religious figure. Gnostics, a group of early Christians, often used the term apocryphal to describe such writings.

Today, the word "apocryphal" is commonly used to describe texts or stories that are not clearly true or reliable, even if they might contain some useful or moral lessons. In this sense, the word can describe stories that are more like folklore, unusual facts, or urban legends.

The term "apocrypha" was also used for writings that were hidden not because they were holy, but because they were seen as not helpful to the church. A Christian teacher named Origen once compared writings that were read in church with those that were hidden. He described the hidden writings as "not found in the common books" but "kept secret." This use of the word helped shape its later meaning as something not trusted or accepted.

In general, the word "apocrypha" now means "of uncertain truth or reliability." This meaning is also seen in Origen’s writings, where he said that certain texts were not accepted as official because they contained ideas that contradicted the teachings of early Christian leaders.

In ancient China, the word "apocryphal" was sometimes used to describe writings and objects made by wise people. These items, such as talismans, charts, and magical diagrams, were used to support the idea that the emperor ruled with the approval of heaven. These objects included things like stones, jade, bronze, and weapons. Over time, written texts became more important than physical objects. However, many of these writings were destroyed by Chinese emperors, especially during the Han dynasty, to stop others from using them to challenge their rule.

Deuterocanonical

The Gelasian Decree, which is now believed to have been written by an unknown scholar between 519 and 553, called certain religious writings by Church Fathers Eusebius, Tertullian, and Clement of Alexandria "apocrypha." Augustine explained that "apocrypha" meant "uncertain origin," meaning any book with unknown authorship or unclear authenticity was considered apocryphal. Jerome, in his Prologus Galeatus, stated that all books not in the Hebrew canon were apocryphal. However, in practice, Jerome treated some of these books as if they were important, and the Western Church did not agree with his definition. Instead, they kept the older meaning of "apocrypha." As a result, different church leaders labeled various books as apocryphal, treating them with different levels of importance.

Origen said the Hebrews passed down twenty-two canonical books. Clement and others sometimes called some apocryphal books "scripture" or "inspired." Those connected with Palestine and the Hebrew canon (called the protocanon) excluded all Old Testament books not in their list. This idea is seen in the canon of Melito of Sardis and in the writings of Jerome. A third view was that these books were not as important as the canonical ones but still had value for teaching morals, helping new converts from paganism, and being read in church. These books were called "ecclesiastical" by Rufinus.

In 1546, the Catholic Council of Trent confirmed the canon of Augustine, which included books from the second and third centuries. It declared that anyone who did not accept these books as read in the Catholic Church and found in the Latin Vulgate would be considered in error. All books except 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, and the Prayer of Manasseh were declared canonical at Trent.

Protestants had varied opinions about the deuterocanon early on. Some believed these books were inspired, while others rejected them. Lutherans and Anglicans included these books in the Bible under a section called "Apocrypha" but said they should not be used to form doctrine. John Wycliffe, a 14th-century Christian thinker, said books not in the Hebrew Old Testament should be called "apocrypha" because they lacked authority. However, his Bible translation still included these books and the Epistle of the Laodiceans.

Martin Luther did not consider apocryphal books as scripture, but in the German Luther Bible (1534), they were placed in a separate section. Lutheran and Anglican lists of these books differ. Anabaptists used the Luther Bible, which included intertestamental books. Amish weddings included stories from the Apocrypha, like the marriage of Tobias and Sarah. Leaders like Menno Simons quoted the Apocrypha with the same authority as Hebrew Bible books. Anabaptists highly valued the accounts of martyrdom in 1 and 2 Maccabees, which reflected their own struggles with persecution.

In Reformed Bibles, like the Westminster edition, readers were warned that these books should not be treated as scripture but only as human writings. Other versions, such as the Geneva Bible and the Church of England's Sixth Article, said these books could be read for moral lessons but not for establishing doctrine. Some Nonconformists began to use "apocrypha" to mean books with false or questionable content, though Protestants did not all agree on this meaning.

Generally, Anabaptists and magisterial Protestants see the fourteen Apocrypha books as non-canonical but useful for teaching morals and life lessons. This view is still held by many groups, including the Lutheran Church, the Anglican Communion, Methodists, and Quakers. In some church services, such as Holy Matrimony, the Book of Tobit is read.

The Anglican Communion states that the Apocrypha is part of the Bible and should be respected. Two hymns in the American Prayer Book, Benedictus es and Benedicite, are taken from the Apocrypha. A sentence in Holy Communion comes from the Apocrypha (Tobit 4:8–9). Lessons from the Apocrypha are regularly read in daily and Sunday services. There are 111 such lessons in the latest American Prayer Book Lectionary, including books like II Esdras, Tobit, Wisdom, and I Maccabees. Article Six of the Thirty-nine Articles summarizes this: "The other Books… the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine."

Though Protestant Bibles historically include 80 books, 66 form the Protestant canon, as listed in the Westminster Confession of 1646. This canon has been accepted for centuries, with some supporting the use of the Apocrypha and others opposing it for various reasons.

Buddhism

Apocryphal Jatakas in the Pāli Canon, such as those in the Paññāsajātaka collection, have been changed to match local traditions in some Southeast Asian countries. These stories have been retold with adjustments to their plots to better show Buddhist teachings.

In the Pāli tradition, apocryphal Jatakas written later (some as recently as the 19th century) are considered a different type of writing compared to the "official" Jataka stories. These official stories were officially accepted as religious texts by at least the 5th century. This is supported by many written records and archaeological findings, such as carvings on temple walls that still exist today.

Christianity

During the Apostolic Age, many Jewish texts from the Hellenistic period were part of Judaism and often used by Christians. Church leaders recognized these books as important for the growth of Christianity, but their authority and value were debated. Christians included some of these books in their Bibles, calling them the "Apocrypha" or "hidden books."

In the 1500s, during the Protestant Reformation, the validity of intertestamental books (books written between the Old and New Testaments) was questioned. Fourteen of these books were grouped into a section called the Apocrypha in Protestant Bibles with 80 books total. Before 1629, all English Protestant Bibles included the Old Testament, Apocrypha, and New Testament. Examples of these Bibles are the Matthew's Bible (1537), the Great Bible (1539), the Geneva Bible (1560), the Bishop's Bible (1568), and the King James Bible (1611).

Fourteen of the 80 books in Protestant Bibles make up the Apocrypha, first included in Luther's Bible (1534). The Catholic Church considers many of these books as part of the Old Testament, as confirmed by the Council of Rome (AD 382) and the Council of Trent (1545–63). The Eastern Orthodox Church also includes all these books in its canon, calling them "anagignoskomena" (books to be read), as decided by the Synod of Jerusalem (1672). Lutheran churches include the Apocrypha as a section between the Old and New Testaments. Martin Chemnitz, a key figure in Evangelical Lutheranism, divided the Bible into two groups: those used to create church teachings and those not. The Book of Concord, a summary of Lutheran beliefs, includes quotes from the Apocrypha. The Dietrich Catechism, used in Lutheran teaching, states that the Apocrypha is part of the Lutheran Bible. Today, Lutheran and Anglican churches still include Apocrypha readings in their worship schedules.

Anabaptists use the Luther Bible, which includes intertestamental books. Amish wedding ceremonies include a story from the Apocrypha about the marriage of Tobias and Sarah. The Anglican Communion accepts the Apocrypha for teaching about life and manners but not for creating religious rules, as stated in the Thirty-Nine Articles. Many readings in The Book of Common Prayer come from the Apocrypha and are read like Old Testament passages.

The first Methodist book for Sunday worship includes verses from the Apocrypha, such as those used in the Eucharist. The Protestant Apocrypha includes three books (1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, and the Prayer of Manasseh) that are considered canonical by Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches but not by the Catholic Church. These books are not in modern Catholic Bibles.

In the 1800s, the British and Foreign Bible Society avoided printing the Apocrypha in its Bibles due to printing costs. This practice became common in English-language Bibles in Britain and the Americas, unlike in Europe, where Protestant Bibles included the Apocrypha with the Old and New Testaments.

Today, English Bibles with the Apocrypha are growing in popularity, often listed as intertestamental books. The Revised Common Lectionary, used by many mainline Protestants, includes Apocrypha readings in its worship calendar, though alternate Old Testament lessons are also provided.

The status of deuterocanonical books (books of the "second canon") remains unchanged in Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, though the number of these books differs between the two traditions. Some groups call these books "intertestamental" and do not consider Hellenistic Judaism part of either Jewish or Christian traditions.

Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox Churches include slightly different collections of apocryphal, deuterocanonical, or intertestamental books in their canons. The Catholic Church's deuterocanonical books include Tobit, Judith, Baruch, Sirach, 1 and 2 Maccabees, Wisdom, and additions to Esther, Daniel, and Baruch.

The Book of Enoch is part of the biblical canon in Ethiopian and Eritrean Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Epistle of Jude refers to a story from Enoch, and some believe Enoch is mentioned in the Gospels and 1 Peter. However, Jesus and his disciples did not reference Enoch. Early church writers like the author of the Epistle of Barnabas, Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement of Alexandria believed Enoch was genuine and inspired. The Epistles of Paul and the Gospels also show influences from the Book of Jubilees (part of the Ethiopian canon) and other texts not in any official Bible.

The process of creating a unified list of accepted Bible books took centuries. The term "canon" (meaning an official list) and "apocrypha" (hidden books) evolved over time. The Catholic Church's first official list of canonical books came from the Council of Rome (382), which later aligned with the Council of Trent. Martin Luther, like Jerome, preferred the Masoretic canon for the Old Testament and excluded apocryphal books from his Bible, calling them "Apocrypha, which are not equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful to read."

The Eastern Orthodox Church includes four additional books in its canon compared to the Catholic canon: Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh, 3 Maccabees, and 1 Esdras.

The status of books the Catholic Church calls Deuterocanonical (second canon) and Protestantism calls Apocrypha has been debated since before the Reformation. Some believe the Septuagint, a Greek translation of Hebrew Scriptures from around 280 BC, originally included these disputed books, while others argue they were added later by Christians. The earliest surviving Septuagint manuscripts date to the fourth century and show little uniformity in including

Islam

Hadith are reports about the words, actions, and silent approval of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Some Muslims claim these reports were created in the 8th and 9th centuries AD and falsely attributed to Muhammad. Historically, certain groups, such as the Kharijites, rejected Hadith. The Mu'tazilites also rejected Hadith as the foundation for Islamic law, even though they accepted the Sunnah and Ijma. Criticism of Hadith within Islam often focuses on questions about their authenticity. Additionally, some Muslim critics argue against Hadith based on theological and philosophical reasons.

Traditionally, some Kharijite groups opposed Hadith. Some people even reject writing Hadith, fearing it might compete with or replace the Quran. The Mu'tazilites believe Hadith cannot reliably convey the Prophet's teachings because they depend on individual transmission, unlike the Quran, which has widespread agreement among Muslims. Some Muslim critics completely reject Hadith as central Islamic texts, relying only on the Quran. This movement is called Quranism.

Judaism

The Jewish apocrypha, called in Hebrew the "Sefarim Hachizonim" ("the external books"), are writings created mostly by Jews, especially during the time of the Second Temple, that were not included in the Hebrew Bible when it was officially recognized as sacred. Some of these books are viewed as holy by certain Christians and are part of their Old Testament collections. The Jewish apocrypha is different from the New Testament apocrypha and other biblical apocrypha because it is the only group of these writings that is based on Jewish religious beliefs.

Although Orthodox Jews believe only the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible are officially sacred, they also respect the Oral Torah, which they believe was passed down from Moses. Some people say the Sadducees, unlike the Pharisees but similar to the Samaritans, likely followed an earlier and smaller list of sacred texts, focusing only on the written Torah (the Law of Moses). This view would make much of the current Jewish and Christian canons seem like apocryphal writings to them. Others argue it is incorrect to say the Sadducees only accepted the Pentateuch (Torah). The Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt were reported to have secret writings, such as those found in the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Other religious traditions had different views on what writings were considered sacred. For example, Ethiopian Jews appear to have kept a variety of canonical texts similar to those used by Ethiopian Orthodox Christians.

Taoism

During the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220), Taoist priests wrote special texts called the Ch'an-wei. These writings were created to support and control the emperor's power. The texts described valuable items that once belonged to the Zhou dynasty (1066–256 BC), which had a strong, unified government. These writings appeared during a time of many wars and uncertainty, when ancient Chinese scholars believed the Zhou dynasty’s centralized rule was a good example for the new Han empire to follow.

The Ch'an-wei were stories written by Han scholars about the Zhou royal treasures. Unlike regular historical records, these texts were not meant to simply describe the past. Instead, they told tales of how ancient sage-kings (the Zhou emperors, who were called this name about 500 years after their time) received special symbols or items from Heaven. These items were part of their royal regalia. The goal was to show that the Han emperor had a divine right to rule, because he possessed the same sacred objects.

Because these writings were created for political reasons, it is hard to trace the true origins of the objects they describe. What is known is that the texts were likely written by a group of scholars called the fangshi. These individuals were not part of the government but were considered experts in areas like divination, astrology, alchemy, and healing. They were respected nobles, and it is believed that the first Taoist priests came from this group. However, because there are few records about early Taoism, the exact connection between these writings and Taoist beliefs remains unclear.