Basque ( / ˈ b æ s k , ˈ b ɑː s k / BASK , BAHSK ; endonym euskara [ eus̺ˈkaɾa ] ) is a language spoken by Basques and other people living in the Basque Country. This region is located in the westernmost part of the Pyrenees mountains, covering parts of southwestern France and northern Spain. Basque is the only language in Europe that is a language isolate, meaning it has no known connection to any other languages. The Basques are the original people of the Basque Country and mainly live there. Basque has 806,000 speakers: 93.7% (756,000) live in the Spanish part of the Basque Country, and 6.3% (51,000) live in the French part.

Native speakers live in an area that includes parts of four Spanish provinces and three historic regions in France. Before the 1980s, the core area where Basque was spoken included parts of Gipuzkoa, most of Biscay, some areas near the northern border of Álava, and the northern part of Navarre. However, much of Álava, the western part of Biscay, and central and southern Navarre are mostly populated by people who speak Spanish. This happened because Basque was replaced by Spanish or Navarro-Aragonese over time, or because Basque was never spoken there.

During Francoist Spain, the government banned the use of the Basque language through strict rules. In the Basque Country, these rules were not only political but also targeted language and culture. The Basque language was not allowed in official settings, schools, or books. It was even illegal to name newborn babies with Basque names, and Basque words on tombstones were removed. In some areas, people were fined for speaking Basque. Supporters of the regime often viewed the use of Basque as a sign of opposition to Franco or separatism. However, in the 1960s, under the same regime, efforts to teach and publish in Basque began to grow. A standardized version of the language, called Euskara Batua, was created by the Euskaltzaindia in the late 1960s to help all Basque speakers understand each other in formal settings like education and media.

In addition to the standardized version, Basque has five historic dialects: Biscayan, Gipuzkoan, and Upper Navarrese in Spain, and Navarrese–Lapurdian and Souletin in France. These dialects are named after historic regions, but their boundaries do not match the boundaries of those regions. Today, Euskara Batua is the main form of Basque used in education and media. In both Spain and France, the use of Basque in schools varies depending on the region and school.

Basque is the only remaining language from the ancient European languages spoken before the arrival of Indo-European languages, such as Celtic and Romance languages. Basque grammar is different from most European languages because of its unique word structure and sentence patterns.

Names of the language

The name of the language changes based on the dialect, but in the official Basque language, it is called euskara. In French, the language is usually called basque, though euskara has become more common recently. In Spanish, there are several names for the language. Today, it is most often called vasco, lengua vasca, or euskera. The words vasco and basque come from the Latin group name Vascones, which was originally used by the Greek writer Strabo in his book Geographica (23 CE, Book III).

The Spanish term vascuence, which comes from the Latin word vasconĭce, has developed negative meanings over time and is not favored by most Basque speakers. This term was used as early as the 14th century. A law passed in Huesca in 1349 stated that no one should use Arabic, Hebrew, or Basque in marketplaces, or they would be fined 30 sols (equal to 30 sheep).

History and classification

The Basque language is surrounded by Romance languages but is not related to them or any other living language. It is a language isolate, meaning it does not belong to any language family. Most scholars believe Basque is the last remaining language from a group of ancient pre-Indo-European languages spoken in Europe before the 3rd millennium BC. Because Basque is not connected to other languages, it is difficult to study its early history using traditional methods, except by comparing differences between its dialects. Little is known about its origins, but it is likely that an early form of Basque existed in the area of modern-day Basque Country before Indo-European languages arrived in western Europe.

Some scholars, like Miguel de Unamuno and Louis Lucien Bonaparte, have observed that Basque words for "knife" (aizto), "axe" (aizkora), and "hoe" (aitzur) seem to come from the word for "stone" (haitz). This has led them to suggest that Basque may date back to prehistoric Europe, when these tools were made of stone. However, others do not agree with this idea.

Latin writings found in Gallia Aquitania include words similar to those in the reconstructed proto-Basque language, such as the names Nescato and Cison, which resemble modern Basque words for "young girl" (neskato) and "man" (gizon). This language, called Aquitanian, is thought to have been spoken in the region before the Roman Republic conquered parts of the western Pyrenees. Some researchers suggest that Basque may have moved westward during Late antiquity after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, settling in the northern part of Hispania, which is now the Basque Country.

Because the Romans paid little attention to this area, the Aquitanian language survived, while other languages like Iberian and Tartessian disappeared. Over time, Basque borrowed many words from Romance languages. Initially, Latin was the main influence, followed by Gascon (a dialect of Occitan) in the northeast, Navarro-Aragonese in the southeast, and Spanish in the southwest.

Since 1968, efforts to revive the Basque language have begun, though they face many challenges. Despite this, progress has been made in many areas. Six main factors are believed to explain its success. In addition, the development and use of language technologies have also played an important role.

Many linguists have tried to connect Basque to other languages, but no theory has been widely accepted. Some have suggested links to distant language families, such as Georgian, but these ideas are not supported by mainstream scholars. Research on Basque's history is difficult because written records are only a few hundred years old. Most theories about its origins remain controversial, and the evidence for these ideas is not generally accepted by experts. Some of these proposed connections include…

Geographic distribution

The area where Basque is spoken has become smaller over time, especially at the northern, southern, and eastern borders. No information is known about the region’s boundaries in ancient times, but based on place names and inscriptions, it seems that at the start of the Common Era, it extended to the Garonne River in the north (including the south-western part of present-day France); at least to the Val d'Aran in the east (now a Gascon-speaking part of Catalonia), including lands on both sides of the Pyrenees; the southern and western boundaries are unclear.

The Reconquista temporarily slowed the shrinking of the Basque-speaking area when Christian lords invited northern Iberian peoples (Basques, Asturians, and "Franks") to settle newly conquered lands.

By the 16th century, the Basque-speaking area was mostly limited to the seven provinces of the Basque Country today, excluding the southern part of Navarre, the south-western part of Álava, and the western part of Biscay, and including some parts of Béarn.

In 1807, Basque was still spoken in the northern half of Álava—including its capital, Vitoria-Gasteiz—and a large area in central Navarre, but in these two provinces, Basque use declined quickly, pushing its borders northwards. In the French Basque Country, Basque was spoken across the region except in Bayonne and nearby villages, and in some bordering towns in Béarn.

In the 20th century, the rise of Basque nationalism increased interest in the language as a symbol of identity. With the creation of self-governing regions in the Southern Basque Country, the language has recently seen a small revival. In the Spanish part, schools teaching Basque to children and centres for adults have brought the language to areas like western Enkarterri and the Ribera del Ebro in southern Navarre, where it was not widely spoken before. In the French Basque Country, these schools and centres have slowed the decline of the language.

Historically, Latin or Romance languages were the official languages in the region. However, Basque was officially recognized in some areas. For example, the fuero (charter) of Ojacastro (now in La Rioja) allowed Basque to be used in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries. In Spain, Basque was permitted in telegraph messages due to a royal decree in 1904.

The Spanish Constitution of 1978 states that Spanish is the official language of the nation but allows regions to grant co-official status to other languages. The Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Autonomous Community makes Basque a co-official language in the region. The Statute of Navarre designates Spanish as the official language but gives co-official status to Basque in the Basque-speaking parts of northern Navarre. Basque has no official status in the French Basque Country, and French citizens cannot use Basque in French courts. However, Spanish nationals may use Basque in French courts with translation, as Basque is recognized on the Spanish side of the border.

Governments have different approaches to promoting Basque in areas where it is spoken. Basque is an official language in the Basque Autonomous Community, where it is widely used and promoted, but only partially in Navarre. The Ley del Vascuence ("Law of Basque"), which divides Navarre into three language areas—Basque-speaking, non-Basque-speaking, and mixed—has been controversial. Some Navarrese political parties support the law, believing it reflects the region’s linguistic diversity, while others see it as unfair because Basque speakers’ rights vary depending on their location.

A 2021 survey of Basque-speaking areas showed that 806,000 people aged 16 and older spoke Basque, which was 30.6% of the population. This is an increase from 539,110 speakers in 1991. The number of Basque speakers has grown mainly because of bilingualism. However, Basque as a sole first language has decreased from 19% in 1991 to 15.1% in 2016, while the use of Basque and another language as a first language increased from 3% to 5.4% during the same period. Public support for efforts to promote Basque has also grown, with fewer people opposing these efforts in 2016 compared to 1991.

In 2021, the survey found that in the Basque Autonomous Community, when both parents spoke Basque, 98% of children were spoken to in Basque only, and 2% were spoken to in both Basque and Spanish. When only one parent spoke Basque as a first language, 84% of children were spoken to in both languages, and 16% were spoken to in Spanish only. In Navarre, 94.3% of the youngest respondents with both Basque-speaking parents used Basque as their family language. In the Northern Basque Country, however, only two-thirds of children with Basque-speaking parents were spoken to in Basque only, and this rate decreased with age.

Basque is used in business in the Basque Country and in places around the world where Basques have settled historically.

Modern Basque dialects show many differences, sometimes making communication between dialects difficult. This is especially true for Biscayan and Souletin, which are considered the most different.

Modern Basque dialectology identifies five main dialects, divided into 11 subdialects and 24 minor varieties. According to Koldo Zuazo, the Biscayan dialect, or "Western" dialect, is the most common, with about 300,000 speakers out of a total of around 660,000. It is split into two subdialects (Western Biscayan and Eastern Biscayan) and transitional dialects.

Although the influence of neighboring Romance languages on Basque (especially vocabulary, but also phonology and grammar) has been significant, it is generally believed that Basque has also influenced these languages. Gascon and Aragonese, in particular, and Spanish to a lesser extent, are thought to have absorbed Basque elements in the past. This influence may have occurred through substrate interference after language shifts from Aquitanian or Basque to Romance languages, affecting all levels of the language, including place names near the Pyrenees.

Although some words in Spanish are said to have Basque origins (e.g., anchoa "anchovies," bizarro "dashing, gallant, spirited," cachorro "puppy"), most have clearer Romance roots or lack strong connections to Basque. Excluding cultural terms, few Spanish words are definitively of Basque origin.

Phonology

The Basque language has five vowel sounds: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/ (the same as in Spanish, Asturian, and Aragonese). In the Zuberoan dialect, additional sounds are used.

Vowel length is not distinct in Basque, but vowels can be longer for emphasis. The vowels /e/ and /o/ are pronounced higher when they come before nasal consonants.

In Basque, the vowel /a/ is often not pronounced when it comes before another vowel. This rule does not stop the use of diphthongs that include /a/.

There are six diphthongs in Basque, all of which are falling diphthongs with /i̯/ or /u̯/ as the second sound.

At the end of syllables, all plosive consonants are pronounced without voicing and are written as such in Standard Basque. When these consonants are between vowels or after /r/ or /l/, the voiced plosives /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ are pronounced as fricatives [β], [ð], and [ɣ].

Basque distinguishes between two ways of pronouncing alveolar fricatives and affricates: laminal and apical. The laminal alveolar fricative [s̻] is produced with the blade of the tongue and is written as ⟨z⟩. The apical alveolar fricative [s̺] is written as ⟨s⟩ and is produced with the tip of the tongue. For example, "zu" (you) is different from "su" (fire). The affricate versions are written as ⟨tz⟩ and ⟨ts⟩. For example, "etzi" (the day after tomorrow) is different from "etsi" (to give up), and "atzo" (yesterday) is different from "atso" (old woman).

In the western parts of the Basque region, only the apical ⟨s⟩ and the alveolar affricate ⟨tz⟩ are used.

Basque also includes postalveolar sibilants, /ʃ/ (written ⟨x⟩) and /tʃ/ (written ⟨tx⟩).

The letter ⟨j⟩ has different pronunciations depending on the dialect: [j, dʒ, x, ʃ, ɟ, ʝ], from west to east in south Bizkaia and coastal Lapurdi, central Bizkaia, east Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, south Navarre, inland Lapurdi and Low Navarre, and Zuberoa, respectively.

The letter ⟨h⟩ is pronounced in northern dialects but not in southern ones. Unified Basque writes it except when it is predictable, such as after a consonant.

Words in Basque rarely begin with ⟨r⟩ unless they are recent loanwords (e.g., "Ruanda" for Rwanda, "radar," "robot"). Older loanwords with initial ⟨r⟩ often have a prosthetic vowel added, such as "err-" (e.g., "Erroma" for Rome, "Errusia" for Russia), "irr-" (e.g., "irratia" for radio, "irrisa" for rice), or "arr-" (e.g., "arrazional" for rational).

The sound /m/ does not appear at the end of syllables in Basque. At the end of syllables, /n/ changes to match the place of articulation of the following plosive. For example, /nb/ becomes [mb], and /nɡ/ becomes [ŋɡ].

Basque has two types of palatalization: automatic and expressive. Automatic palatalization happens in western Labourd, much of Navarre, all of Gipuzkoa, and nearly all of Biscay. In these areas, /n/ and /l/ become [ɲ] and [ʎ] after /i/ or before another vowel. An exception is the loanword "lili" (lily). Automatic palatalization also occurs after the semivowel [j] in diphthongs like ai, ei, oi, and ui. This happens in a wider area, including Soule, all of Gipuzkoa and Biscay, and almost all of Navarre. In some regions, /n/ and /l/ may become palatalized even without a following vowel. After palatalization, the semivowel [j] is usually absorbed by the palatal consonant. This is seen in older spellings like "malla" instead of the modern "maila" (degree). However, modern Standard Basque spelling ignores automatic palatalization.

In certain regions of Gipuzkoa and Biscay, /t/ is often palatalized after /i/ or [j], sometimes sounding like the affricate /tʃ/ (written ⟨tx⟩). For example, "aita" (father) may sound like "atxa" or "atta." This type of palatalization is not common and is often considered informal.

In Goizueta Basque, /nt/ may be palatalized after /i/, and /ld/ may be palatalized optionally. For example, "mintegi" (seedbed) becomes [mincei], and "bildots" (lamb) can be /biʎots̺/.

Nouns, adjectives, and adverbs in Basque can be expressively palatalized to show "smallness," affection in nouns, or mitigation in adjectives and adverbs. This is often used in pet names and nicknames. In words with sibilants, those sibilants become palatalized: ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩ become ⟨x⟩, and ⟨ts⟩ and ⟨tz⟩ become ⟨tx⟩. For example, "gizon" (man) becomes "gixon" (little fellow), "zoro" (crazy) becomes "xoro" (silly), and "bildots" (lamb) becomes "bildotx" (lambkin). In words without sibilants, /t/, /d/, /n/, and /l/ may be palatalized, shown by double consonants or ⟨ñ⟩ for /n/. For example, "tanta" (drop) becomes "ttantta" (droplet), and "nabar" (grey) becomes "ñabar" (grey).

Stress in Basque varies greatly among dialects and is not marked in Standard Basque writing. The Basque Language Academy (Euskaltzaindia) provides general guidelines for stress placement, suggesting a weak high-pitched stress. However, stress is not consistently marked in written Basque due to dialectal differences. Examples include "bas

Grammar

Basque is an ergative–absolutive language. In this language, the subject of an intransitive verb (a verb that does not take an object) is in the absolutive case, which has no special marker. The same case is used for the direct object of a transitive verb (a verb that takes an object). The subject of a transitive verb is marked with the ergative case, shown by the suffix -k. This marking also affects agreement between the main verb and auxiliary verb.

The auxiliary verb, which often accompanies main verbs, agrees not only with the subject but also with any direct or indirect object present. Among European languages, polypersonal agreement (agreement with multiple participants in a sentence) is found only in Basque, some languages of the Caucasus (especially Kartvelian languages), Mordvinic languages, Hungarian, and Maltese (all non-Indo-European). The ergative–absolutive alignment is also rare in European languages but occurs in some Caucasus languages and is common globally.

In the sentence "Martin buys the newspapers for me," Martin-ek is the agent (transitive subject), marked with the ergative case ending -k (with an added -e-). Egunkariak has the -ak ending, marking plural object (plural absolutive, direct object case). The verb erosten dizkit means "buying" (gerund) and "he/she (does) them for me" (auxiliary). The auxiliary dizkit can be broken into parts: AUX. 3. OBJ-PL. OBJ-me. IO-you(PL). SBJ.

In another example, "You (plural) buy the newspapers for me," the auxiliary verb is di-zki-da-zue, meaning "you pl. (do) them for me." The pronoun zuek ("you plural") has the same form in the nominative or absolutive case (subject of an intransitive sentence or direct object of a transitive sentence) and in the ergative case (subject of a transitive sentence). In spoken Basque, the auxiliary verb is never dropped even if it is redundant, as in dizkidazue in "you (pl.) are buying the newspapers for me." Pronouns are usually dropped unless used for emphasis, such as in "it is you (pl.) who buys the newspapers for me" or "it is me for whom you buy the newspapers."

Modern Basque dialects allow the conjugation of about fifteen verbs, called synthetic verbs, which can appear in present and past tenses in the indicative and subjunctive moods, three tenses in the conditional and potential moods, and one tense in the imperative. Each verb has a nor (absolutive) paradigm and possibly a nor-nori (absolutive–dative) paradigm. Transitively used verbs also use nor-nork (absolutive–ergative) and nor-nori-nork (absolutive–dative–ergative) paradigms. The last is seen in dizkidazue. Each paradigm includes eight persons (five singular, three plural), except nor-nori-nork, where the absolutive can only be third-person singular or plural. The most common auxiliary, izan, can be used in any paradigm depending on the main verb.

Synthetic verbs have more singular persons (five) than plural persons (three) because of two familiar forms: informal masculine and feminine second-person singular. The pronoun hi is used for both, but the masculine form uses a -k and the feminine uses an -n. This is rare in Indo-European languages. The verb paradigm is further modified by inflecting for "listener" (allocutive) even if the verb has no second-person element. If the familiar masculine form is used, the verb is adjusted accordingly, and similarly for the familiar feminine. This increases the number of possible forms by nearly three. However, these forms are limited to situations where all conversation participants are friends of the same sex and not too far apart in age. Some dialects omit familiar forms entirely, while the formal second-person singular conjugates similarly to other plural forms, suggesting it may have originally been a second-person plural.

All other Basque verbs are periphrastic, functioning like participles in English. They have three forms: perfect (various suffixes), habitual (suffix -t[z]en), and future/potential (suffix -ko/-go). Verbs of Latinate origin in Basque, as well as many others, have a -tu suffix in the perfect, adapted from the Latin perfect passive -tus. Synthetic verbs also have periphrastic forms for perfects and simple tenses where they are deponent.

In a verb phrase, the periphrastic verb comes first, followed by the auxiliary.

Basque noun phrases are inflected in 17 ways for case, multiplied by four for definiteness and number (indefinite, definite singular, definite plural, and definite close plural: euskaldun, euskalduna, euskaldunak, and euskaldunok). The first 68 forms are further modified based on other sentence parts, which are also inflected for the noun. It has been estimated that with two levels of recursion, a Basque noun may have 458,683 inflected forms.

The common noun liburu ("book") is declined as follows:

The proper name Mikel (Michael) is declined as follows:

In a noun phrase, modifying adjectives follow the noun. For example, "in the old house" is morphologically analyzed as etxe zaharrean.

The basic word order in Basque is subject–object–verb. The order of phrases within a sentence can change for thematic purposes, but the order of words within a phrase is usually fixed. In neutral sentences (such as those informing someone of a fact), the topic is stated first, followed by the focus, with the verb phrase at the end. The focus directly precedes the verb phrase. This rule applies to questions, such as "What is this?" translated as Zer da hau? or Hau zer da? where the question tag zer immediately precedes the verb da.

In negative sentences, the order changes because the negative particle ez must directly precede the auxiliary. The topic usually comes first, followed by the rest of the sentence, including the periphrastic verb if present. For example, "Father teaches French" is Aitak frantsesa ir

Vocabulary

Through contact with nearby peoples, the Basque language has borrowed many words from Latin, Spanish, French, and Gascon, among other languages. Many Latin words have been used in Basque for a long time, but they have changed over time to fit Basque sounds and rules. Examples include: lore (meaning "flower," from Latin florem), errota (meaning "mill," from Latin rotam, which means "[mill] wheel"), gela (meaning "room," from Latin cellam), and gauza (meaning "thing," from Latin causa).

Writing system

Basque is written using the Latin alphabet, which includes the letters ⟨ñ⟩, ⟨ç⟩, and ⟨ü⟩. The Basque alphabet, created by Euskaltzaindia, also includes the letters ⟨c, q, v, w, y⟩, but these are used only for words borrowed from other languages, not for native Basque words.

In Basque, certain pairs of letters, called digraphs, are treated as single units. These include ⟨dd, ll, rr, ts, tt, tx, tz⟩. Each letter and digraph in the Basque alphabet represents a unique sound. However, the letter ⟨i⟩ can change the sound of ⟨l⟩ and ⟨n⟩ when it comes before them, making them sound like /ʎ/ and /ɲ/ in most dialects. For example, the word "Ikurriña" can also be written as "Ikurrina" without changing the pronunciation. The proper name "Ainhoa" includes the letter ⟨h⟩, which is silent but helps prevent the ⟨n⟩ from changing its sound.

The letter ⟨h⟩ is usually not pronounced in most areas but is spoken in some parts of the north-east. This led to debates during the creation of the standard Basque alphabet because speakers of the most common dialects had to learn where to place ⟨h⟩, even though it was not spoken by them.

In Sabino Arana’s alphabet (1865–1903), the digraphs ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨rr⟩ were replaced with ⟨ĺ⟩ and ⟨ŕ⟩, respectively.

A traditional style of writing, often used for inscriptions, is inspired by the work of stone and wood carvers. This style is known for having thick serifs, which are the small lines at the ends of letters.

Basque millers historically used a unique number system of unknown origin. This system is based on the number 20 (vigesimal) and uses symbols arranged vertically or horizontally. When written vertically, numbers and fractions are often placed on the side, usually at the top. When written horizontally, smaller numbers are on the right, and larger numbers are on the left. Fractions, especially 1⁄2, are frequently used.

Symbols for numbers vary by region but follow similar rules. For example, the number 5 is often shown as a diagonal line or curve next to a vertical line, or as a "V" shape when written horizontally. Numbers in groups of ten are marked with a horizontal line through the vertical line. Numbers in the twenties are represented with a circle and intersecting lines. This system is no longer widely used but is sometimes used for decorative purposes.

Examples

A blacksmith slave captured in the rainforests of the West was brought to Rome. He was made to work as a blacksmith and was forced to make chains. The hot iron he took from the oven could be shaped into different tools. He could have made swords so his people could break the chains. However, he, the slave, continued to make chains, even more chains.