Harappa is an archaeological site located in Punjab, Pakistan, approximately 24 kilometers (15 miles) west of Sahiwal. The site is named after a nearby modern village that was once close to the old path of the Ravi River. Today, the Ravi River flows eight kilometers (five miles) to the north of the site.

Archaeologists believe the ancient city of Harappa had as many as 23,500 people and covered about 150 hectares (370 acres) during the Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC – 1900 BC). This period is considered large for its time, as the city included homes made of clay bricks.

During British rule, the ancient city of Harappa suffered damage when bricks from the ruins were used as material for railway tracks on the Lahore–Multan Railway. The modern village of Harappa is now less than one kilometer (5⁄8 mile) away from the ancient site. Today, Harappa is a small town with about 15,000 people. It has a railway station that was built during the Raj period but is not a major transportation hub.

In 2004, the Harappa site was added to UNESCO’s tentative list for World Heritage status. In 2005, plans for an amusement park at the site were stopped when workers discovered many ancient artifacts during early construction.

History

The Harappan Civilization began with earlier cultures, such as Mehrgarh, around 6000 BC. The two largest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, appeared around 2600 BC in the Indus River valley, in the regions of Punjab and Sindh. This civilization had possible writing, large cities, advanced drainage systems, and varied social and economic systems. It was rediscovered in the 1920s after excavations at Mohenjo-daro near Larkana and Harappan cities in western Punjab, south of Lahore. Other sites were found stretching from the Himalayan foothills in eastern Punjab to Gujarat in the southeast and Balochistan, Pakistan, in the southwest. Although the Harappa site was damaged in 1857 when engineers used bricks from the ruins to build railway tracks, many artifacts were still found.

During the late Harappan period, falling sea levels caused some areas to be abandoned. Later, the Harappan civilization lost features like writing and water management systems. As a result, settlements in the Ganges Valley became more important, and cities along the Ganges developed.

The earliest clearly Harappan sites date to 3500 BC. This early stage lasted until about 2600 BC. The civilization’s mature stage was from 2600 BC to 2000 BC, when major cities were most developed. From around 2000 BC, the civilization gradually declined until about 1400 BC, known as the Late Harappan period. There is no evidence that invaders destroyed the Harappan cities. Instead, natural causes, such as climate change, are likely responsible. Studies show that the area now known as the Thar Desert was once much wetter, but the climate became increasingly dry over time.

Culture and economy

The Indus Valley civilization was an urban society supported by extra food from farming and trade, which included exchanges with Elam and Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are often described as having separate living areas, flat-roofed brick homes, and strong buildings for government or religious use. While similarities between these cities have led to discussions about a shared system of city planning, these similarities are mainly due to a layout with streets that form right angles. Comparing the layouts of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa shows that they are actually quite different.

The weights and measures used in the Indus Valley civilization were very consistent, following a specific scale. Unique seals were used for purposes like identifying property and shipping goods. Copper and bronze were used, but iron was not yet available. Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing, and wheat, rice, vegetables, and fruits were grown. Many animals, including the humped bull, were raised, and birds were kept for fighting. Wheel-made pottery, often decorated with animal and geometric designs, was found in large numbers at major Indus sites. A central government for each city, though not the entire civilization, may have existed based on cultural similarities, but it is unclear if leaders were chosen by a group of wealthy traders. Harappans used trade routes along the Indus River that reached places like the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable items traded included carnelian and lapis lazuli.

Evidence from Harappan bones shows higher rates of injuries, especially in later periods of the civilization. Many skeletons had wounds likely caused by fighting. Studies showed that leprosy and tuberculosis were present in Harappa, with the highest rates of disease and injuries found in Area G, a place where bones were kept near the city walls. The increase in head and face injuries and infections seems to have happened during the time the society was declining, suggesting that these signs of violence and illness appeared after the civilization began to fall apart. This may have been due to stress, limited resources, and lack of access to basic health and safety needs after the collapse.

Trade

The Harappans traded with ancient Mesopotamia, including Elam, and other regions. They exchanged cotton textiles and agricultural goods as their main trade items. Harappan merchants also established trading posts in Mesopotamia, which were used as centers for trade. Additionally, they traded widely with people in southern India, near present-day Karnataka, to obtain gold and copper from them.

Archaeology

Harappa is the first site discovered that represents the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization ("IVC"). It was the first IVC site studied by the Archaeological Survey of India during the British Raj, but its importance became clear only after the discovery of Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, Pakistan, later. Because of this, the IVC is sometimes called the "Harappan civilization," a term more frequently used by the Archaeological Survey of India after 1947, when India gained independence. The discovery of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, two major cities of the IVC, marked the end of research that began when the Archaeological Survey of India was founded in 1861.

Archaeologists have divided the history of Harappa into three main time periods:

• Period 1: Early studies suggested the area covered about 7 to 10 hectares. Later discoveries, including pottery found in Mound E and previously studied pottery from Mound AB, suggest the Ravi/Hakra phase covered about 25 hectares in both mounds.
• Period 2: The Kot Diji phase expanded in Mounds AB and E, covering more than 27 hectares.
• Period 3: The Harappa phase reached a size of 150 hectares.

Among the most remarkable and mysterious items found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro are small, square seals made of steatite (a type of soft stone) engraved with images of humans or animals. Many of these seals have symbols that may represent a form of writing. Despite efforts by scholars worldwide and modern analysis techniques, the meaning of these symbols has not been fully understood. It is also unclear whether they relate to proto-Dravidian or other non-Vedic languages. Linking the symbols and artwork of the IVC to known historical cultures is difficult because of limited evidence and the influence of modern political ideas on interpretations of ancient history.

During the late Harappan period, the civilization included areas such as Daimabad in Maharashtra, India, and parts of Badakshan in Afghanistan. The civilization covered a vast area, stretching approximately 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles).

Symbols similar to the Indus script

Clay and stone tablets found at Harappa were dated to around 3300–3200 BC using scientific methods. These tablets have markings shaped like a trident and resembling plants. Dr. Richard Meadow, a researcher from Harvard University, said, "It is unclear whether these symbols are true writing, but they look similar to the Indus script." These symbols appear slightly earlier than the earliest writing found in Mesopotamia, which dates to around 3100 BC. These markings are similar to the Indus Script, which has not yet been fully understood.

In February 2006, a teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur, Tamil Nadu, discovered a stone tool with an inscription believed to be about 3,500 years old. Indian expert Iravatham Mahadevan suggested the symbols on the tool match the Indus script and called the discovery "the greatest archaeological find in Tamil Nadu in a century." Based on this, he proposed that the language used in the Indus Valley may have been Dravidian. However, the lack of evidence for a Bronze Age in South India, compared to the use of bronze-making techniques in the Indus Valley, raises questions about the accuracy of this idea.