The Harbin cranium is a nearly complete skull from an ancient human found in sediments near the Songhua River in Harbin, on the Northeast China Plain. It is from the late Middle Pleistocene, meaning it is between 146,000 and 309,000 years old. Scientists described it in 2021 and controversially named it the holotype of a new human species, Homo longi, also called "Dragon Man." The name honors Heilongjiang Province, which means "Black Dragon River" in Chinese. This province is home to the Amur River, of which the Songhua River is a tributary. Initially, the Harbin cranium was thought to belong to the same group as the Denisovans. Later studies using protein and mitochondrial DNA analysis confirmed its connection to Denisovans.
The Harbin cranium has a shape similar to other ancient human skulls found in China during the Middle Pleistocene. Like other early humans, the skull is long and low, with large brow ridges, wide eye sockets, and a big mouth. It is the longest skull ever discovered from any human species. Its face is flat, like that of modern humans and Homo antecessor, but with a larger nose. The brain volume was 1,420 cubic centimeters, a size similar to that of modern humans and Neanderthals.
Taxonomy
In 1933, a local worker found a nearly complete skull near the Songhua River while building the Dongjiang Bridge in Harbin, which was then part of Manchukuo, a region controlled by Japan. The worker likely recognized the skull’s importance, possibly because people were interested in anthropology after the discovery of Peking Man in 1929. To protect the skull from authorities, he hid it in an abandoned well.
In 1945, after the Soviet Union ended Japan’s control of the region, the worker avoided telling officials about his past job with the Japanese railway. This made it difficult for him to report the skull’s discovery, as he feared revealing his connection to the Japanese.
In 2018, before his death, the worker’s grandson learned about the skull and took it back. Later that year, a paleoanthropologist named Ji Qiang persuaded the grandson to donate the skull to Hebei GEO University for study. The skull is now stored there, with the catalog number HBSM2018-000018(A).
However, some scientists have questioned the story’s accuracy. A 2025 article suggested that Ji Qiang believed the skull might have been found by the grandson, not the grandfather, and that the grandfather failed to report it properly. Despite this, the skull’s origin in the Harbin area is not disputed.
Because the skull’s history is unclear, scientists have struggled to determine its exact location and age. In 2021, geologists tested the skull and nearby fossils using special methods like X-ray fluorescence and strontium isotope analysis. They found that the fossils likely formed at the same time and came from the same area, possibly the Upper Huangshan Formation, which dates to 309 to 138,000 years ago.
Direct dating of the skull showed a wide range of ages, from 296,000 to 62,000 years ago. This variation may be due to uranium leaching, a process that affects dating accuracy. Scientists estimate the skull is at least 146,000 years old but cannot determine its exact age because its origin is uncertain. Still, the skull is believed to be from the late Middle Pleistocene, a time when other human remains in China, such as those from Xiahe, Jinniushan, Dali, and Hualong Cave, also existed.
A diagram based on ancient protein analysis shows that the Harbin skull is closely related to Denisovans, an ancient human group. In 2021, Ji and colleagues named the skull’s species Homo longi, or “Dragon Man,” after the Chinese word for dragon and the region where the fossil was supposedly found, Heilongjiang. This name has been debated, with some scientists, like María Martinón-Torres, criticizing the lack of clear context for the fossil.
The Harbin skull resembles the Dali skull, discovered in 1978 and briefly named Homo sapiens daliensis. However, the name daliensis may not be valid under scientific rules, so Homo longi might take priority. Some scientists, like Chris Stringer, suggest the Harbin skull could belong to Homo daliensis, but others argue Homo longi is distinct enough to represent a separate species.
Based on the skull’s large molars, Ji and colleagues proposed it may be related to the Xiahe mandible from Tibet, which is linked to Denisovans. The Xiahe mandible is also similar to fossils from Xujiayao and Penghu, which were identified as Denisovan through protein analysis. However, some studies suggest that Middle Pleistocene Asian humans are more closely related to modern humans than to Neanderthals, though other evidence places Denisovans closer to Neanderthals.
In 2025, scientists extracted mitochondrial DNA and proteins from the skull’s dental calculus (calcified plaque). These findings showed the skull is closely related to early Denisovans from southern Siberia. While some DNA contamination was present, the team confirmed the skull’s Denisovan identity through specific gene variants and proteins found only in Denisovans. This discovery marks the first time host DNA from a Paleolithic human fossil was recovered from dental calculus.
Anatomy
The Harbin cranium has a skull that is long and low, with a forehead that slopes backward. The upper part of the face is very wide, and the nose opening is large, which might help with breathing in cold air. The eye sockets are large and square, and the brow ridges above the eyes are thick and strong. The cheekbones are flat, the mouth is wide, and the teeth are large. The base of the skull is broad. The skull measures 221.3 mm long and 164.1 mm wide (about 8.7 inches by 6.5 inches). The distance from the nose to the back of the skull is 212.9 mm (about 8.4 inches), making it the longest archaic human skull found so far. Modern human skulls average about 176 mm long and 145 mm wide for men, and 171 mm long and 140 mm wide for women. The brow ridges on the Harbin skull are 145.7 mm long (about 5.74 inches), the longest ever recorded.
The brain inside the Harbin skull was very large, about 1,420 cc. This is larger than most human species except modern humans and Neanderthals. However, the braincase has a narrow area behind the eyes, which is more developed than in Neanderthals but less than in older human species. The back of the skull has a weak ridge, unlike most other ancient human skulls. The top of the head has bones that do not expand outward, unlike Neanderthals or modern humans.
Although the face is wide, it is flat, similar to modern humans and older human species like H. antecessor. However, the tooth sockets for the front teeth are angled outward. The Harbin skull shows a mix of ancient and modern traits, similar to some of the earliest H. sapiens fossils found in Africa. Scientists believe the Harbin skull is closely related to the Xiahe mandible, but the lower jaw was not found. The only preserved tooth, an upper left molar, is very large (13.6 mm long and 16.6 mm wide, about 0.54 inches by 0.65 inches), similar to a Denisovan molar. This tooth is oval-shaped, worn down, and nearly flat. Modern human molars are usually smaller, averaging about 10.2 mm long and 11.8 mm wide (about 0.40 inches by 0.46 inches).
Scientists think the Harbin skull belonged to a male under 50 years old, based on the skull’s size and the wear on the teeth. They also estimate the person may have had medium-dark to medium-light skin, dark hair, and dark eyes, based on genetic data from Neanderthals, Denisovans, and early modern humans.
The left side of the skull has shallow dents near the top, possibly from a past injury. The second molar on the left side did not touch the third molar, which may mean the third molar was small or missing.
Paleoenvironment
Middle-Late Pleistocene sediments near Harbin, from which the skull is believed to come, include the remains of several animals. These remains include the giant deer Sinomegaceros ordosianus, wild horses, elk (also called wapiti), the buffalo Bubalus wansijocki, brown bears, Eurasian beavers, the giant beaver Trogontherium, the antelope Procapra, marmots, tigers, cave lions, woolly mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros.