Headhunting is the act of killing a person and taking their head as a trophy. Sometimes, other body parts like the ear, nose, or scalp are taken instead. Many cultures around the world have practiced headhunting throughout history.

Scholars who study human cultures, called anthropologists, have researched headhunting to understand its purpose and meaning. They examine how it was used to show dominance over enemies, honor spiritual beliefs, and reinforce social roles. Topics studied include showing strength by defeating rivals, using violence in rituals, maintaining balance in the universe, proving bravery, and gaining power from the spirit of an enemy. Some believe taking a head allowed people to control the life force of the victim, which was thought to be stored in the head.

Today, most scholars agree that headhunting was mainly used for religious or ceremonial reasons. It helped define and protect relationships between groups and individuals. Some experts think the practice came from the belief that the head held the victim's spirit or life force, which could be used by the person who took it.

Austronesia

Among the Austronesian peoples, head-hunting raids were closely connected to the practice of tattooing. In societies that practiced head-hunting, tattoos were used to show how many enemy heads warriors had taken in battle. Tattoos were also part of ceremonies that marked the transition to adulthood. The number and placement of tattoos showed a warrior’s status and skill in battle.

In Southeast Asia, studies by anthropologists have examined head-hunting and other traditions among the Murut, Kadazan, Dusun (including Kwijau and Lotud Dusuns), Iban, Berawan, Wana, and Mappurondo tribes. For these groups, head-hunting was often a ritual activity, not just a war or fight. A warrior would take one head. Head-hunting helped end mourning for the community’s dead. It also connected to ideas of becoming a man and marriage. The heads taken were highly valued. Other reasons for head-hunting included capturing enemies as slaves, stealing valuable items, fighting between groups, and expanding land.

In 1886, Italian anthropologist Elio Modigliani visited head-hunting communities in South Nias, an island west of Sumatra. He wrote about their society and beliefs. He found that the main reason for head-hunting was the belief that owning a person’s skull meant the victim would serve as a slave forever in the afterlife. Skulls were considered valuable. Head-hunting in Nias continued until the late 20th century, with the last known incident in 1998.

The Sumba people practiced head-hunting until the early 20th century. They only did it in large war groups. When hunting wild animals, they worked quietly and secretly. Skulls collected were placed on a tree in the center of the village.

Kenneth George wrote about rituals he observed among the Mappurondo tribe in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Instead of taking heads, they used coconuts as substitutes in a ceremony called pangngae. This ritual happened after the rice harvest and ended mourning for the dead. It also showed strength, shared resources, and resisted outside influences.

In Sarawak, a region of Borneo, James Brooke and his family ruled for many years. They stopped head-hunting before World War II. Before Brooke arrived, the Iban people moved into new areas by fighting and pushing out smaller tribes. They later moved again into other regions, such as the Kanowit area, led by a leader named Mujah "Buah Raya."

Brooke first met the Iban in the Saribas-Skrang region during a battle in 1849. He made a treaty with their leader, Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana "Bayang." Over time, Brooke’s family expanded their control across Sarawak. They used local people to fight rebellions and banned head-hunting. However, they allowed head-hunting during approved expeditions. Those who participated were given rewards like tax exemptions or land. Head-hunting also happened between tribes.

One famous Iban warrior who resisted Brooke was Libau "Rentap." Brooke had to send three expeditions to defeat him. The final battle involved building a large cannon to match Rentap’s weapon. A truce was made with the sons of a chief who supported Rentap.

The Iban moved again from the Batang Ai region to the Batang Kanyau and other areas, pushing out tribes like the Kayan and Kajang. Brooke allowed these moves and reduced conflicts. The Iban held sacred ceremonies, such as the Bird Festival and Proper Festival, to gain spiritual blessings for war.

During World War II, head-hunting returned in British Borneo under Japanese control. Later, during conflicts in Sarawak and Malaya, the Iban were known for head-hunting and were recognized for their skills as trackers and fighters, earning medals for bravery.

Since 1997, serious violence occurred in Indonesian Kalimantan between the Dayak people and Madurese migrants. Events like the 1997 Sanggau Ledo riots and the 2001 Sampit conflict involved attacks and killings. Some bodies were decapitated in a way similar to traditional Dayak practices.

The Moluccans, especially the Alfurs in Seram, were head-hunters until the Dutch colonial government stopped the practice.

Many Austronesian groups in Southeast Asia and the Pacific practiced head-hunting. It was common among Melanesian peoples, including those in New Guinea. A missionary found 10,000 skulls in a longhouse on Goaribari Island in 1901.

The Marind-anim in New Guinea were known for head-hunting. They believed the skull held a spiritual force tied to naming newborns. Head-hunting was not mainly for eating the dead, but their flesh was used in ceremonies.

The Korowai, a tribe in Irian Jaya, live in tall tree houses, some over 130 feet high. This was thought to protect them from the Citak, a neighboring head-hunting tribe. Some believe Michael Rockefeller, who disappeared in 1961, may have been taken by head-hunters in the Asmat region.

Mainland Asia

During the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, soldiers from the Qin state often collected the heads of their defeated enemies to gain recognition and rewards. After Shang Yang's reforms, Qin armies used a system that gave soldiers, many of whom were conscripted farmers who received no pay, the chance to earn promotions and rewards by collecting enemy heads, which acted as a way to count their achievements. Authorities also displayed the heads of executed criminals in public places until the early 20th century.

The Wa people, an ethnic group living in Southwest China, eastern Myanmar (Shan State), and northern Thailand, were once called "Wild Wa" by British colonists because of their traditional practice of headhunting.

Samurai in Japan also sought recognition through headhunting. After battles, warriors would present enemy heads to their generals, who would reward them with promotions, money, or land from defeated clans. Generals displayed the heads of their enemies in public squares.

Headhunting was practiced by the Kukis, Mizo, and Chin (together called the Zo people), the Wa, the Garo, and the Naga ethnic groups in India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar until the 19th century. Nuristanis in eastern Afghanistan were also headhunters until the late 19th century.

Mizo warriors often used secret attacks and ambushes to surprise their enemies. This led to beliefs about the best times to conduct raids. Before a raid, people would study the moon’s shape and the position of stars. If a star appeared to the right of the crescent moon, it was seen as a bad sign for a raid. If the star was on the left, it was considered a good omen. Another belief involved the minivet bird. If the bird flew away from a village before a raid, it was a sign of success. If it flew toward the village while making loud noises, the group would return home.

During raids, some men would leave the village to attack enemies, while others stayed behind to protect the village. After killing enemies, warriors would step on the bodies, shout the victims’ names three times, and sing a battle song. This was believed to make the dead become the warrior’s slave in the afterlife. Singing the song was thought to help the slave recognize their master. Afterward, the enemies’ heads were cut off. If the journey home was too long, warriors would take scalps instead as proof of victory.

Returning to the village, it was not allowed to bring heads back during the day. The group would wait outside the village until after dinner and the time when young men and women met. Only then would they enter the village. They would announce their return with gunshots and battle songs. Village girls would then create Arkeziak, which were decorations made from white cotton, and tie them around the warriors’ heads, necks, wrists, ankles, or arms. The rest of the village avoided meeting the returning warriors out of respect. The celebration included battle songs and gunshots.

The next morning, women would tie the Arkeziak made the night before. The village chief and upas (leaders) would give warriors necklaces made of amber and precious stones. Even if a warrior did not bring back a head or scalp, those who helped collect heads were treated equally but received fewer rewards. Spoils of war, such as guns, gongs, spears, and knives, were given to warriors’ families through small payments. It was not allowed to ask for or receive trophies as gifts.

The heads were stored in the Thirdengsa, a blacksmith’s workshop. After breakfast, a ceremony took place. The heads were taken from the forge and placed on a table in front of the chief’s house. A broken piece of pottery with stale rice was placed nearby. A ritual dance was performed, with young women joining in.

Warriors surrounded the table for another custom. The leader of the group would take a boiled egg, eat half of it, and sprinkle the other half into the rice. A spell was then chanted to curse the heads on the table. A battle song was sung, and a gun was fired three times. Music and songs followed. Warriors taunted the heads, and guns were fired at them without bullets. A pot of zu (a type of drink) was placed in the village square, and a mithun (a type of bovid) was killed and offered to the warriors. A feast followed, with zu served to all.

After the ceremony, the heads were attached to freshly cut poles and placed on the west side of the village in the lungdawh (cemetery). Some heads were hung at the village entrance. Trees with enemy heads hanging were called Sah-lam. Headhunters were expected to sacrifice a mithun or pig under the belief that this would prevent the head’s spirit from causing madness.

The Wa people, who live near the Burma-China border, were once called "Wild Wa" by Europeans because of their "savage" behavior. Until the 1970s, the Wa practiced headhunting.

Americas

Several groups within the Jivaroan people, such as the Shuar in eastern Ecuador and northern Peru, lived near rivers like Chinchipe, Bobonaza, Morona, Upano, and Pastaza. These rivers are major branches of the Amazon. These groups practiced headhunting to collect trophies. They shrunk the heads and called them Tzan-Tzas. The people believed the soul of the person killed remained in the head.

In the 21st century, the Shuar make replica Tzan-Tzas using their traditional methods. They shrink the heads of monkeys and sloths and sell them to tourists. Some smaller groups within local tribes are said to still practice headhunting during conflicts over land or as punishment for crimes.

The Kichwa-Lamista people in Peru were also known for headhunting.

A tzompantli is a wooden structure or fence used by ancient Mesoamerican cultures to display human skulls, often those of captured enemies or people sacrificed in religious ceremonies.

A tzompantli-like structure was found at the La Coyotera site in Oaxaca. It dates to the Proto-Classic Zapotec civilization, which existed from about the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. Similar structures are also found in other Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Toltec and Mixtec.

Using numbers recorded by conquistador Andrés de Tapia and Fray Diego Durán, Bernard Ortiz de Montellano estimated in the late 20th century that the Hueyi Tzompantli (Great Skullrack) in Tenochtitlan held no more than 60,000 skulls. There were at least five other skullracks in Tenochtitlan, but they were much smaller.

Examples of tzompantli-like structures are also found at Maya sites. One well-preserved example exists at the large Chichen Itza site.

The Nazca people used severed heads, called trophy heads, in religious rituals. Art from the late Nazca period suggests that leaders gained status by successfully capturing enemies and taking their heads.

Europe

The Celts in Europe practiced headhunting because they believed the head held a person's soul. Ancient Roman and Greek writers described how the Celts sometimes nailed the heads of enemies to walls or hung them from horses. The Celtic Gaels continued this practice for a long time. In the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology, a half-human hero named Cúchulainn cuts off the heads of three men and places them on his chariot. This was likely a warrior tradition, not a religious one. The practice lasted until the end of the Middle Ages among Irish groups and even later among the Border Reivers in the area between England and Scotland. After the Celts converted to Christianity, the religious reasons for headhunting were probably forgotten, though the practice continued. In places where Celts lived, images of saints holding their severed heads were often seen. Some Germanic tribes and Iberian people also took heads, but the reasons for this are unknown.

The Montenegrins are an ethnic group in Southeastern Europe who live near the Dinaric mountains and are closely related to the Serbs. They practiced headhunting until 1876, using a special lock of hair grown for this purpose. In the 1830s, Montenegrin ruler Petar II Petrović-Njegoš began building a tower called "Tablja" above Cetinje Monastery. The tower was never completed, and Montenegrins used it to display the heads of Turkish enemies taken in battle. This happened because they often fought the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, King Nicholas I of Montenegro ordered an end to the practice, as European diplomats considered it cruel. The Tablja was destroyed in 1937.

The Scythians were skilled horse riders. An ancient Greek historian named Herodotus wrote that some Scythian tribes performed human sacrifices, drank the blood of victims, removed the scalps of enemies, and drank wine from the skulls of their enemies.

Modern times

During World War II, some Japanese soldiers beheaded many Chinese soldiers and civilians. These soldiers sometimes held contests to see who could kill the most people, such as the Hundred Man Killing Contest. They also took photographs of the piles of heads they collected as souvenirs.

At the same time, Allied troops, including American soldiers, sometimes collected the skulls of dead Japanese soldiers as personal trophies. These skulls were given to friends and family or sold to others. This practice only happened in the Pacific theater, not in Europe where American forces fought German and Italian soldiers. In 1942, the leader of the Pacific Fleet ordered strict punishment for soldiers who took enemy body parts as souvenirs. However, the practice continued. In 1944, a magazine called Life published a photo of a young woman holding a skull that had been sent to her by her Navy boyfriend. This caused anger among people in the United States.

Historians believe that American soldiers viewed the Japanese as less important, partly because of the Japanese mistreatment of American soldiers. In Borneo, the Dayak people formed a group to fight against the Japanese after the Japanese army committed brutal acts in the region. Australian and British soldiers helped train some Dayak tribesmen into a group of 1,000 fighters. This group killed or captured about 1,500 Japanese soldiers.

During the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960), British and Commonwealth forces used Iban (Dayak) headhunters from Borneo to fight against suspected guerrillas in Malaya. These fighters were told they were collecting heads for "identification" purposes. They were allowed to keep the scalps of dead enemies as trophies. However, British officials privately admitted that such actions would likely be considered war crimes under international law. Later, pieces of a trophy skull were found in a British military museum.

In 1952, a British newspaper called Daily Worker (now known as Morning Star) published a photo of Royal Marines in Malaya posing with severed human heads. At first, British government officials denied the claims, calling the photo a fake. The newspaper then released another photo showing more British soldiers with a severed head. This forced a British official to admit the photos were real. In response, Winston Churchill banned headhunting, fearing the photos would be used for communist propaganda.

Although the photos of soldiers with severed heads shocked people, the Daily Worker was the only British newspaper to publish them during the 20th century. Most other British newspapers ignored the images.

European colonial powers also practiced headhunting, claiming it was for scientific study. In the 19th century, as European countries controlled many parts of the world, English, French, and German forces often collected skulls from local leaders and resistance fighters. These skulls were traded between institutions and individuals as trophies.

Interpretations of Headhunting

Headhunting drew attention from cultures that did not practice the custom. Early Western observers often saw it as taboo, believing the act showed violent intentions. Because of misunderstandings between colonial Euro-American cultures and those who performed headhunting, discrimination increased. Headhunting was often seen as a sign of primitive behavior by those who did not participate in the practice. The idea that cultures continuing headhunting rituals late in history were savage led Western colonizers to try forcing religious beliefs onto them. Different views on nature and culture created a separation between people who practiced the rituals and those who observed them from outside.

Cultural Impact

Headhunting is shown often in tribal art from many cultures. Artworks, such as sculptures, carvings, tattoos, and ceremonial masks, have shown trophy heads from different societies. Each culture shows its headhunting practices in unique ways through different art forms. All these artworks have important meanings related to culture, and their styles vary. The materials used include wood, skin, and textiles. Clothing and dance also show pride, sometimes including the actual severed heads. Masks used in these dances often showed social rank, power, and pride in being part of headhunting groups.

During the Vietnam War, some American soldiers took "trophy skulls" as part of their actions.