Homo naledi is an extinct type of early human discovered in 2013 in the Rising Star Cave system, located in the Gauteng province of South Africa, part of the Cradle of Humankind. These humans lived between 335,000 and 236,000 years ago. The first discovery included 1,550 bone pieces from 737 different parts of the skeleton, belonging to at least 15 individuals. Even though many bones were found, scientists are still unsure how to classify Homo naledi with other human species.

Homo naledi shares traits with both modern humans and earlier species like Australopithecus. Their brain size was much smaller than modern humans, measuring 465–610 cubic centimeters compared to 1,270–1,330 cubic centimeters in today’s humans. They were estimated to be about 143.6 centimeters (4 feet 9 inches) tall and weighed around 39.7 kilograms (88 pounds). This gave them a brain size relative to their body size, called the encephalization quotient, of 4.5. Their brain structure was similar to other humans, which might suggest similar thinking abilities. The fact that small-brained humans lived alongside larger-brained humans challenges the idea that bigger brains always led to evolutionary success. Their mix of physical traits also shows a wider range of variation in the human family.

Homo naledi had body features that allowed them to walk long distances with a human-like stride, but they were more tree-dwelling than other humans, better suited for climbing and moving in trees rather than running long distances. Their teeth suggest they ate gritty foods covered in dust or dirt, such as nuts and tubers.

Although no tools or signs of material culture have been found with Homo naledi remains, they may have been skilled enough to make and use tools. This suggests they could have created Early or Middle Stone Age tools found near their fossils, as no other human species was known to live nearby at that time. Some scientists believe Homo naledi intentionally buried their dead by carrying bodies into a cave chamber. Others think they may have carved markings on rocks near a possible burial area, but many experts remain unsure about this idea.

Discovery

On September 13, 2013, while exploring the Rising Star Cave system in the Cradle of Humankind, South Africa, cavers Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker found hominin fossils at the bottom of the Dinaledi Chamber. On September 24, they returned to the chamber and took photographs. They showed these photos to South African palaeoanthropologists Pedro Boshoff and Lee Rogers Berger on October 1. Berger formed an excavation team that included Hunter and Tucker, known as the "Underground Astronauts."

The chamber had been entered before by cavers in the early 1990s. They moved some bones and might have caused more damage, though much of the floor had not been walked on before 2013. The site is about 80 meters (260 feet) from the main entrance, at the bottom of a 12-meter (39-foot) vertical drop. The main passage is 10 meters (33 feet) long and as narrow as 25–50 centimeters (10 inches to 1 foot 8 inches). More than 1,550 bone pieces from at least 15 individuals (9 young and 6 adults) have been found in the clay-rich sediments. Berger and colleagues published their findings in 2015.

The fossils include 737 parts of the body, such as skull sections, jaws, ribs, teeth, limbs, and inner ear bones from old, adult, young, and infant individuals. Some bones are connected or almost connected, like the skull with the jaw and nearly complete hands and feet. The site has the most complete collection of related hominin fossils found in Africa. This includes more skeletal parts from different ages and genders than the Sima de los Huesos collection or later Neanderthal and modern human samples.

The holotype, DH1, includes a male's partial skull and jaw. The paratypes, DH2 through DH5, each have partial skulls. Because the remains were found in Rising Star Cave, Berger and colleagues named the species Homo naledi in 2015. The name "naledi" means "star" in the Sotho language.

In 2017, John Hawks and colleagues reported remains of at least three more individuals (two adults and a child) in the Lesedi Chamber of the cave.

Classification

In 2017, scientists used electron spin resonance (ESR) and uranium–thorium (U-Th) dating on three teeth, along with U-Th and paleomagnetic dating of the surrounding sediments, to determine that the Dinaledi remains are between 335,000 and 236,000 years old. This is much more recent than earlier estimates of 1–2 million years ago, which were based on the lack of similar small-brained hominins in Africa from such a recent time. The small-brained Homo floresiensis in Indonesia lived on an isolated island and became extinct soon after modern humans arrived there.

The survival of a small-brained hominin for so long among larger-brained Homo species has changed earlier ideas about human evolution. It shows that a larger brain does not always mean an evolutionary advantage. The mix of physical traits in H. naledi also increases the variety of features seen in the Homo genus.

H. naledi is thought to have separated from other Homo species very early. It is unclear whether this split happened around the same time as H. habilis, H. rudolfensis, and A. sediba, or if H. naledi is closely related to H. erectus and other large-brained Homo species. Another possibility is that H. naledi is closely related to the ancestors of modern humans and Neanderthals. This places the split from other Homo species between the Pliocene and 900,000 years ago. It is also possible that H. naledi’s ancestors came from a mix of Homo and late australopithecine species. Skull comparisons show that H. naledi shares the most similarities with H. erectus.

It is unknown whether H. naledi was a small, isolated group in the Cradle of Humankind or lived across Africa. If the latter is true, some fossils previously classified as late H. erectus might actually belong to H. naledi.

Earlier studies placed H. naledi as a late branch in the family tree of human ancestors. However, recent research suggests H. naledi is an early branch in this tree.

Anatomy

Two male H. naledi skulls from the Dinaledi chamber had brain sizes of about 560 cm³ (34 cubic inches), and two female skulls had brain sizes of 465 cm³ (28.4 cubic inches). A male H. naledi skull from the Lesedi chamber had a brain size of 610 cm³ (37 cubic inches). The Dinaledi specimens have brain sizes more similar to australopithecines. For comparison, H. erectus had an average brain size of about 900 cm³ (55 cubic inches), and modern humans had brain sizes of 1,270 cm³ (78 cubic inches) for males and 1,130 cm³ (69 cubic inches) for females. The Lesedi specimen has a brain size within the range of H. habilis and H. e. georgicus. The brain size relative to body size (called the encephalization quotient) of H. naledi was estimated at 3.75, which is the same as the pygmy H. floresiensis, but smaller than all other Homo species. Contemporary Homo species had encephalization quotients above 6, H. e. georgicus had 3.55, and A. africanus had 3.81. It is unclear whether H. naledi inherited small brain size from the last common Homo ancestor or if it evolved later.

The shape of the skull is more similar to Homo, with a slender form, asymmetry in the temporal and occipital lobes of the brain, and reduced narrowing behind the eye sockets. The frontal lobe shape is similar in all Homo brains, regardless of size, and differs from Australopithecus. This feature is linked to the ability to make tools, develop language, and form social groups.

Like modern humans (but not fossil hominins such as South African australopithecines, H. erectus, or Neanderthals), the second permanent molar of H. naledi erupted later in life, appearing alongside the premolars instead of earlier. This suggests a slower maturation rate similar to modern humans. The tooth formation rate of the front teeth is also most similar to modern humans. The overall size and shape of the molars most closely match those of three unidentified Homo specimens from Swartkrans and Koobi Fora Caves. They are similar in size (but not shape) to Pleistocene H. sapiens. The necks of the molars are proportionally similar to those of A. afarensis and Paranthropus.

Unlike modern humans and other Homo species, H. naledi lacks certain dental features. Many individuals have main cusps on the second and third molars, such as the metacone (on the tongue side) and hypocone (on the lip side), and a Y-shaped hypoconulid (a ridge on the lip side toward the cheek) on all three molars. The premolars of H. naledi have a well-developed P3 and P4 metaconid, a strongly developed P3 mesial marginal ridge, a larger P3 than P4, and tall crowns, which distinguish them from the premolars of other Homo species. However, H. naledi also shares many dental similarities with other Homo species.

The anvil (a middle ear bone) is more similar to those of chimps, gorillas, and Paranthropus than Homo. Like H. habilis and H. erectus, H. naledi has a well-developed brow ridge with a fissure above it. Like H. erectus, it also has a pronounced occipital bun. H. naledi shares some facial features with H. rudolfensis.

The H. naledi specimens are estimated to have, on average, stood about 143.6 cm (4 ft 9 in) tall and weighed 39.7 kg (88 lb). This body mass is between the sizes seen in Australopithecus and Homo species. Like other Homo species, male and female H. naledi were likely about the same size, with males on average about 20% larger than females. A juvenile specimen, DH7, has skeletal features consistent with a growth rate similar to the faster ape-like patterns of MH1 (A. sediba) and Turkana boy (H. ergaster). Because dental development is similar to modern humans, a slower maturation rate is possible. Using the faster growth rate, DH7 would have died at 8–11 years old, but using the slower growth rate, DH7 would have died at 11–15 years old.

Regarding the spine, only the tenth and eleventh thoracic vertebrae (in the chest region) are preserved from one individual. These are proportionally similar to those of contemporary Homo, though they are the smallest recorded in any hominin. The two transverse processes (bony projections) of the vertebra are most similar to those of Neanderthals. The neural canals (channels in the vertebrae) are proportionally large, like those of modern humans, Neanderthals, and H. e. georgicus. The eleventh rib is straight like that of A. afarensis, and the twelfth rib is robust like that of Neanderthals. Like Neanderthals, the twelfth rib supported strong intercostal muscles above and a strong quadratus lumborum muscle below. Unlike Neanderthals, there was weak attachment to the diaphragm. Overall, this H. naledi specimen appears to have been small-bodied compared to other Homo species, though it is unclear if this single specimen represents the species.

The shoulders are more similar to those of australopithecines, with the shoulder blade positioned higher on the back and farther from the midline, short clavicles, and little or no humeral torsion (twist in the upper arm bone). Elevated shoulder and clavicle bones indicate a narrow chest. The pelvis and legs have features similar to Australopithecus, including anteroposteriorly compressed (flattened from front to back) femoral necks, mediolaterally compressed (flattened from left to right) tibiae, and

Pathology

The adult right lower jaw bone (U.W. 101-1142) has a bony growth that may be a non-cancerous tumor. The person likely had some swelling and pain in the area. The tumor’s location near the medial pterygoid muscle (a muscle near the jaw hinge) may have limited the muscle’s movement and caused the right side of the jaw to move unevenly.

Dental problems in H. naledi individuals between 1.6–2.8 and 4.3–7.6 months of age were likely caused by seasonal challenges. These may have included very hot summers and cold winters that made it hard to find enough food. Winter temperatures in the area average about 3 °C (37 °F) and can drop below freezing. Keeping warm would have been difficult for small-bodied H. naledi infants, and cold winters may have increased the risk of lung-related illnesses. Seasonal environmental challenges match modern patterns in South Africa, where flu cases peak in winter and children are most often hospitalized for diarrhea during summer rains.

Local hominins may have been hunted by large predators like lions, leopards, and hyenas. Few remains of large predators are found at the northern end of the Cradle of Humankind, where Rising Star Cave is located. This might be because predators preferred the Blaaubank River to the south, which may have had more large prey. Alternatively, the fossil record may not fully represent predator activity in the north due to fewer known sites in that area.

Culture

Dental chipping and wear show that H. naledi regularly ate small hard objects, like dirt and dust. Rounded wear on the back teeth might have come from gritty particles, possibly from unwashed roots or tubers. Dry conditions could have also caused dust to settle on food. It is possible they ate larger hard items, such as seeds and nuts, but these were likely broken into smaller pieces before eating.

H. naledi lived in a different environment compared to earlier South African hominins like Australopithecus and Paranthropus. The teeth of all three species suggest they needed strong chewing power to break down tough plant or muscle fibers. Other Homo species, such as H. sapiens, may not need such strong forces because they used food-processing methods like cooking.

H. naledi might have made tools from the Early Stone Age (Acheulean and possibly Oldowan) or Middle Stone Age because their hands had the same features as other human species known for tool-making. H. naledi is the only known human species to have lived during the early Middle Stone Age in the Highveld region of South Africa. This suggests they may have created and kept this tradition during that time. In this case, these tools and techniques could have developed separately among different Homo groups or been shared over long distances.

Since the first study of the Dinaledi Chamber fossils, scientists have debated whether H. naledi intentionally buried their dead. If true, this would be the oldest known hominin burial, older than a 78,000-year-old H. sapiens burial in Kenya by about 160,000 years. However, some claims about how the fossils were formed, their layers in the ground, and the types of minerals present lack clear evidence, leading to criticism.

In 2015, researchers Paul Dirks, Lee Berger, and their team said the bodies in the chamber were placed there intentionally because they appeared whole when first found. They found no signs of injury from falling or predation. The chamber is hard for large predators to reach, isolated, and never flooded. There is no hidden path or evidence of a disaster that could have killed all the individuals. The team suggested the bodies might have fallen slowly through a narrow, uneven path, but they concluded natural forces were unlikely. Since the cave is dark, people would have needed artificial light to navigate, and evidence of fire was found but not yet published. The researchers also said the site was used for burials over time, as the bodies were not all placed at the same time.

In 2016, Aurore Val argued that natural forces could explain the placement of the bodies. She noted signs of damage from beetles, larvae, and snails, which help decompose remains. Since snails are not common in the chamber and no shells were found, she suggested decomposition began before the bodies were placed there, weakening the claim of intentional burial. A 2021 analysis confirmed insect damage to a skull fragment but also said some human activity might have been involved in moving the bones.

In 2017, Dirks, Berger, and their team again said there was no water flow into the cave, making intentional placement more likely. They suggested the bodies might have been placed by other Homo species, like early humans, but not necessarily by other H. naledi. They proposed burial could have been a way to remove decaying bodies, stop scavengers, or express social bonds and grief.

In 2018, Charles Egeland and others agreed with Val, saying there is not enough proof H. naledi had a concept of an afterlife linked to burials. They compared the Dinaledi fossils to baboon remains found in caves, which might have accumulated naturally or been dragged in by leopards.

Between July and September 2025, Berger and colleagues published three peer-reviewed papers suggesting H. naledi buried their dead near carvings on cave walls, including geometric shapes and a symbol with two cross-hatching marks. In 2023, they shared these findings as preprints (unreviewed papers), but critics said they used a new publication model to gain attention. Some scientists, like Michael Petraglia, argued the link between the fossils and carvings was not proven without dating.

In 2025, Kimberly Foecke, Alain Queffelec, and Robyn Pickering criticized the preprint's analysis, saying it was biased and used flawed statistics. A key claim was that soil around the fossils was different from soil farther away, suggesting digging to bury the bodies. However, their reanalysis found no evidence to support this, weakening the burial theory.